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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



MA ' 10 1816 



GRAMMAR 



FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



BY 




B^F. TWEED, A.M. 






LATE SUPERVISOR IN THE BOSTON SCHOOLS 




BOSTON 
LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS 

10 MILK STREET 
1886 



Copyright, 1886, 
By B. F. TWEED. 



ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED 

BY RAND, AVERY, AND COMPANY, 

BOSTON. 






PREFACE. 



In preparing this elementary grammar, it is assumed that 
pupils, before using it, have been trained in the primary 
schools and the lower classes of the grammar schools, to 
use language, both oral and written, in simple stories and 
descriptions, with considerable facility, and with general 
correctness. 

In the lessons that precede the study of grammar, the 
attention of pupils has not been called, except incidentally, 
to the structure of sentences, but directed mainly to telling 
as plainly as they can what they know about the subject. 

The teacher's part in these exercises is to aid the pupil 
in understanding what he is to talk or write about, and to 
suggest by questions, or otherwise, a natural arrangement. 

Of course, the most common grammatical errors have 
been corrected by appeals to the ear, rather than by any 
rules of grammar. A few general directions have also been 
given as to the proper use of capitals, punctuation-marks, 
etc. This, however, is not the study of grammar. 

In the study of grammar, language becomes the object 
of study and investigation. 

We take the sentence, — the only form of words -express- 
ing a complete thought, — and analyze it into its elements 



IV PREFACE. 

according £0 the part that each performs in expressing the 
thought. These elements into which all discourse may be 
resolved, we call the pa?' ts of speech. 

Then the relation of the elements in a sentence must be 
known in order to determine the meaning. 

In many cases, the arrange??ient furnishes the only means 
of determining the relation of words and other elements of 
the sentence. In others, the relation is shown by inflec- 
tions, auxiliaries, or connectives. 

Hence, in addition to the elements, — arrangement, con- 
struction, inflection, and its substitutes are proper subjects 
of grammatical study. 

In presenting these several departments of grammar, I 
have taken advantage of the pupils' knowledge of language 
acquired by use ; in many cases simply formulating and 
naming principles practically learned in previous exercises. 

It has been my endeavor, also, to develop the principle 
by illustration before assigning the technical name ; and to 
exclude all technical names not founded on grammatical 
distinctions. 

Our language has been called a " grammarless language." 
While this is not true, as it would imply that it has no prin- 
ciples of construction, it will be admitted, that, in parting 
with so many of the inflections of the synthetic languages 
on which our grammars have been modelled, it has become 
to a great extent logical. 

The general grammatical facts remaining, I have tried to 



PREFACE. V 

state as simply as possible ; and I believe they are sufficient 
to explain the construction of language as used by our best 
speakers and writers. 

Idiomatic expressions, requiring a knowledge of the his- 
tory of the language to explain, as well as difficult and 
doubtful constructions, are referred to in the Appendix, to 
be used at the discretion of the teacher. It is believed, 
however, that the pupil should be thoroughly grounded in 
the general principles of grammar, before being introduced 
to the unusual and difficult application of these principles. 

A form of analysis sufficient to show the relation of sub- 
ject, predicate, and modifiers, in simple, compound, and 
complex sentences, is given, without requiring a strict adher- 
ence to it. It may be modified at the pleasure of the 
teacher. 

It is believed that the use of oral and written language in 
explaining the construction of sentences is by no means an 
unprofitable exercise. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

Page. 
The Sentence 5 

Kinds of Sentences (Exercise) 6 

Subject and Predicate . ,7 

Exercises . 7, 8, 9 

Nouns, Verbs (Exercise) 10 

Simple and Enlarged Subjects and Predicates (Exercise), ii 

Personal Pronouns (Exercise I.) 12 

Personal Pronouns (Exercise II.) 13 

Personal Pronouns (Exercise III.) 14 

.Adjectives (Exercises) 15 

Articles (Exercise) 16 

Adverbs (Exercises) 17 

Phrases 18 

Prepositions 19 

Exercise on Phrases 20 

Conjunctions 20, 21 

Compound Sentences 21 

Relative Pronouns 22, 23 

Clauses 23, 24 

Complex Sentences (Exercise) 24 

Summary of Parts of Speech 25 

The same Word performing the Office of different Parts 

of Speech 25, 26 

Exercise 26 

Co-ordinate, Subordinate, and Corresponding Conjunctions, 26 



2 CONTENTS. 

PART II. 

Page. 

Classes of Nouns (Exercise) 27 

Person 28 

Number 28, 29 

Exercise 29, 30 

Gender (Exercise) 30, 31 

Case (Exercise) 31, 32 

Declension of Personal Pronouns ^3 

Exercise on Personal Pronouns 34 

Compound Personal Pronouns (Exercise) 34 

Relative Pronouns (Declension) 35 

Exercise on Relative Pronouns . 36 

Compound Relative Pronouns (Exercise) .... 36 

Interrogative Pronouns (Exercise) 37 

Verbs, Mode 38 

Exercise on Mode 39 

The Infinitive . . . • . . . . . . . . 39, 40 

Participles . 40, 41 

Tense (Exercise) 41, 42, 43 

Classes of Verbs 43 

Regular and Irregular 43, 44 

Transitive and Intransitive 44 

Active and Passive Voice 44 

Exercise 44 

Auxiliary Verbs 45 

Conjugation of the Verb "Love" 45, 46, 47, 48 

The Infinitive 48 

Conjugation of the Verb "Be" 49, 50 

The Progressive Form (Exercise) 51 

The Passive Voice (Exercise) . 52 

Person and Number as commonly applied to Verbs . 53 

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 54 

Adjectives Irregularly Compared 55 

Pronominal Adjectives 55 



CONTENTS. 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

Page. 

Construction and Arrangement 56 

Rule i. Syntax of the Subject 56, 57 

Rule 2. Syntax of the Predicate 57 

Rule 3. Syntax of Adjectives and Participles . . 57, 58 

Rule 4. Syntax of Adverbs 58 

Rule 5. Apposition 58, 59 

Rule 6. Intransitive and Passive Verbs .... 59 

Rule 7. The Possessive Case 59 

Rule 8. The Objective Case after Transitive Verbs . 59 

Rule 9. The Objective Case after Prepositions ... 60 

Rule 10. Syntax of an Infinitive Phrase .... 60 

Rule ii. Nouns used Independently 60 

Rule 12. Agreement of Pronouns 60 

Rule 13. Syntax of Prepositions 61 

Rule 14. Syntax of Conjunctions 61 

Rule 15. Interjections . . . 61 

PUNCTUATION. 

Definition. — Characters Used 62 

The Period. The Interrogation Point. The Exclamation 

Point 62, 63 

The Comma 63, 64 

The Semicolon 64, 65 

The Colon 65 

The Dash 65, 66 

Use of Capitals 66, 67, 68 

PART IV. 

Table of Irregular Plurals, for Reference ... 69, 70 

Gender (Table) 70, 71 

Table of Irregular Verbs, for Reference, 72, y^ 74, 75, 76, •/•j, 78 



4 CONTENTS, 

Page. 
Exercises on Modes and Tenses 79, So 

Proper Use of Relative Pronouns (Exercise) 80, 8i 

Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences . . . . 82, 83 

Expanding Words into Phrases 83, 84 

Expanding Words and Phrases into Clauses . . . 84 

Contraction of Complex into Simple Sentences . . 86, 86 

Contraction of Compound Sentences into Complex . . 86, S7 

Simple Sentences united to Form Compound Sentences 88, 89 

Inversion 89, 90, 91 

Compound Subject (Exercise) 92, 93 

Methods of Analysis 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 

Suggestive Questions (Example) 100, 101 

APPENDIX. 

Remarks on the Indicative, Potential, and Imperative 

Modes 103 

The Subjunctive Mode 104 

Tense . 104 

Sequence of Tenses 105 

Verbs having two Objects 105 

"Need" and "Dare," "Needs" as an Adverb . . . 106 

" Methinks," "Had as Lief," "Had Rather," etc. . . 106, 107 
The Anglo-Saxon Infinitive. The Dative, or Gerundal 

Form 107, 108 

"The House is Building," or "being Built"? ... 108 

Is "as" after "such" and "many" a Relative Pronoun? . 109 

"Two first" and "First two" 109, no 

"'The' more, 'the' better" no 

"What with" no 

The Comparison of two Things . . . . . no, 111 
When to use an Adjective, and when an Adverb, after 

Certain Verbs in 

"Shall" and "Will" 112 

Ending a Sentence with a Preposition .... 112, 113 



Grammar for Common Schools. 



Part L 

THE SENTENCE. 



1. We express our thoughts in language, by using 
words in such a way as to make sense. 

A spoken word is a simple sound or a combina- 
tion of sounds, suggesting an idea. 

A written or printed word is a letter or a com- 
bination of letters, suggesting an idea. 

We can form ideas of material objects ; as, a stone, 
a flower, water. 

We can also form ideas of things which exist as 
objects of thought, though they cannot be perceived 
by the senses ; as, anger, goodness, love, joy, virtue, 
vice. 

When we have an idea of a thing, we commonly 
think about it with reference to some other idea to 
which it is related. If we have an idea of birds, 
and an idea of flying, we may combine the ideas in 
a thought, and express it by the statement, "Birds 
fly." 

5 



6 THE SENTENCE. 

Two or more words are required to express a 
thought ; and a thought expressed in words is called 
a sentence. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

2. When the sentence tells or declares something, 
it is a declarative sentence; as, Birds fly. The 
dog runs. The girl laughs. 

When the sentence commands or entreats, it is 
an imperative sentence; as, Come here. Make 
haste. Let me go. Do study your lesson. 

When the sentence asks a question, it is an 
interrogative sentence; as, Do birds fly? Are 
you hungry ? Can you read ? 

When the sentence expresses emotion, or feeling, 
it is an exclamatory sentence; as, What a pleas- 
ant day it is ! How cold it is ! 

EXERCISE. 

Tell whether each of the following sentences is declarative, 
imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory. 

(i) Man is mortal. (5) Study, boys. 

(2) Is man mortal ? (6) Run, Fido. 

(3) Iron is a metal. (7) Do boys like to skate ? 

(4) Is iron a metal ? (8) How sweetly it sings ! 

(9) A pretty bluebird flew to the apple-tree. 



THE SENTENCE. 7 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

3. A sentence may be divided into two parts. One 
part names and frequently describes the person or 
thing spoken of, and is called the subject. 

The other part tells or declares something about 
the subject, and is called the predicate. 

In the sentence, A rickety old wagon carried us to 
the campy " A rickety old wagon" is the subject, and 
" carried us to the camp" is the predicate. 

EXERCISE I. 

Tell the subject and predicate in each of the following sentences. 
(i) Two large black horses ran away with the coach. 

(2) The carriage moved slowly up the hill. 

(3) Charles wrote a letter to me. 

EXERCISE II. 

What is the subject in the first of the following sentences ? 
Why ? What is the predicate ? Why ? In the second ? The third ? 
The fourth ? The fifth ? 

(1) A clock stopped. 

(2) An old clock stopped. 

(3) An old clock stopped suddenly. 

(4) An old clock, that stood in a farmer's kitchen, 
stopped suddenly. 

(5) An old clock, that stood in a farmer's kitchen, 
stopped suddenly one summer morning. 



8 THE SENTENCE. 

QUESTIONS. 

(i) What is the word clock used for in these sentences? 

Ans. To name the thing spoken of. 

( 2 ) What is the word stopped used for ? 

Ans. To declare something about the clock. 

(3) What is the word old used for? 

Ans. To describe the clock with regard to age. 

(4) What is the word suddenly used for? 
Ans. To tell how it stopped. 

(5) What does in the farmer's kitchen tell? 
Ans. It tells where it stood. 

(6) What does one summer morning tell? 
Ans. It tells when it stopped. 

EXERCISE III. 

Tell the subject and predicate of each of the following sentences. 

(1) The cold winds blew fiercely against the house, on 
the hill. 

(2) The children at the farmhouse sat on the front door- 
steps a long time in the evening. 

(3) The beautiful snow falls gently from the sky. 

(4) Men of sense act in a foolish manner sometimes. 

QUESTIONS. 

+■- 
In the sentences given above, what are the following words anJ 

groups of words used for? 

(1) winds; blew; cold; fiercely; against the house; 
on the hill. 



THE SENTENCE, 9 

(2) children ; sat; at the farmhouse; on the front door- 
steps ; a long time ; in the evening. 

(3) snow; falls; beautiful; gently; from the sky. 

(4) men ; act ; of sense ; in a foolish manner ; sometimes. 

EXERCISE IV. 

Tell the subject and predicate of each of the following sentences. 

( 1 ) Old Christmas, with the snowy hair and ruddy face, 
had done his duty that year in the noblest fashion. 

(2) The complaints of the old man excited the indig- 
nation of the bystanders. 

(3) Over the little shelf was a picture of Sarah's grand- 
mother. 

(4) A man with a bundle of straw for my bed led me 
through a dark, narrow passage, into a small room. 

(5) The gray-haired old man talked much about Latin 
and Greek. 

(6) New races of animals rise into existence with each 
succeeding month. 

(7) The man of virtue and honor will be trusted. 

(8) t In every combination of circumstances, the man of 
faith discovers some gracious purpose. 

(9) The man of long experience is a proper person to 
consult. 

Note to Teachers. — " Questions " similar to those given in the pre- 
ceding exercises assist in explaining the use of words, and lead to their 
division into the parts of speech. 



IO PARTS OF SPEECH. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

NOUNS, VERBS. 

4, Words are divided, according to their use, into 
certain classes, called parts of speech. 

Words used as names are called nouns; as, man, 
child, stone, tree, house, bird, village, goodness, wisdom, 
dnty, pleasure. 

Words that assert something of the subject of a 
sentence are called verbs. They may also be used 
to command, to entreat, to ask a question, or to 
express emotion; as, He talks. The child walks. 
Fishes swim. Trees grow. Do trees grow ? How 
strong the lion is ! Study, boys. Do give me some- 
thing. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the nouns and verbs in the following sentences. 

(i) The robin flew. 

(2) Birds build nests on trees. 

(3) John runs and jumps. 

(4) The stream comes from the mountain. 

(5) A cold wind piled the snow in heaps. 

(6) Wisdom is better than wealth. 

(7) Virtue is the strength and beauty of the soul. 

(8) The man had a good horse, a good bridle and sad- 
dle, spurs, and a whip. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. II 

SIMPLE AND ENLARGED SUBJECTS AND 
PREDICATES. 

5. In every sentence there is a noun, or something 
that stands for a noun, which is called the simple 
subject; and a verb, which is called the simple 
predicate: as, Lions roar. Birds sing. 

The simple subject, with other words that describe 
or limit it, is called the enlarged subject. 

The simple predicate, with other words that de- 
scribe or limit it, is called the enlarged predicate. 

In the sentence, Birds sing, neither the subject nor the 
predicate is enlarged. 

In the sentence, The beautiful little birds sing their merry 
songs, " birds" is the simple subject, and "sing" is the sim- 
ple predicate. " The beautiful little birds " is the enlarged 
subject, and " sing their merry songs " is the enlarged predi- 
cate. 

Note. — First find the simple subject and predicate, and then the enlarged 
subject and predicate. This is called analyzing the sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

(i) The boy strolled along the banks of the river. 

(2) A great fire raged in London in 1666. 

(3) The calm shade shall bring a kindred calm. 

(4) The sweet breeze shall waft a balm to her sick heart. 

(5) The tall ship glides gracefully over the blue water. 



12 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

PRONOUNS. 

6. When a person speaks of himself, he does not 
use his name, but one pf the following words that 
stand for his name, — /, my, mine, vie; as, /asked 
my father to get a book for me. He gave me mine. 

When a speaker joins himself with others, he uses 
one of these words, — %ve, our, ours, us ; as, We asked 
our mates to play with us. The books are ours. 

When one speaks to another person or to other 
persons, he does not commonly call them by name, 
but uses you, your, yours ; as, I will give you your 
books. These books are yours. 

Note. — In poetic style we use thou, thy, thine, thee. 

EXERCISE I. 

Select the words that stand for nouns in the following sentences. 

(i) John said, "The book mother gave me, I lent to my 
sister." 

(2) William said, "When Mary and I went to school, 
we took our dinner with us." 

(3) Boys, ask your mother if you may go. 

(4) My son found your book in the street. 

(5) William gave the book to me, and I now give it 
to you. 

(6) Thou art the man ; the fault is thine. 



PARTS OF SPEECH, 1 3 

In speaking of a male, we may use ke % his, him, in 
place of the noun ; as, The boy said he was studying 
his lesson when the teacher spoke to him. 

In speaking of a female, we may use she, her, hers, 
in place of the noun ; as, Sarah said she was studying 
her lesson when the teacher spoke to her. The dolls 
were hers. 

In speaking of something neither male nor female, 
we may use it or its in place of the noun ; as, The 
house is large, and its sunny rooms make it pleasant. 

EXERCISE II. 

Select the words that stand for nouns in the following sentences. 

(i) John asked his brother if he would lend him his sled. 

(2) The lady told her daughter that she might go 
with her. 

(3) The boy picked up his book, and put it in its place. 



In speaking of more than one male, female, or 
thing without sex, we may use they, their, theirs, 
them, in the place of the noun ; as, 

The gentlemen said, as they left the room, they 
would take tJieir hats with them. 

The ladies said they would take their children 
with them. 



14 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The houses were pleasant, with their large rooms 
and rich furniture in them. 

These words, /, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us, 
you, your, yours, ye, thou, thy, thine, thee, he, his, him, 
she, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them, are 
called pronouns, because they perform the office 
of nouns. 

They are called personal pronouns, because 
they have different forms to represent the person 
speaking, the person spoken to, and the person 
or thing spoken of. 

A noun or pronoun representing the person speak- 
ing is in the first person ; the person spoken to, in 
the second person ; and the person or thing spoken 
of, in the third person. 

EXERCISE III. 

Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, and tell 
whether they are in the first, second, or third person. 

(i) I saw the boy, and called him to me. 

(2) Joseph has some apples, and will give them to you. 

(3) Henry's sisters were here with him. 

(4) Annie gave a ring to her sister, and she wore it 
constantly. 

(5) George bought the book, but has given it to his 
brother. 

(6) This knife is mine, but you may take it. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 1 5 

(7) They asked me to help them. 

(8) When you are ready to recite your lesson, you may 
come to me, and I will hear you. 

(9) Your pencil is better than mine : please lend it to me. 

(10) "Thy triumph ceased awhile, 

And Hope, thy sister, ceased with thee to smile.'' 

ADJECTIVES. 
EXERCISE I. 

7. Tell what the italicized words in the following sentences are 
used for. 

( 1 ) He is an old man. 

(2) He lives in a white house. 

(3) The city is supplied with pure water. 

(4) Ten men were elected to serve on the committee. 

(5) The ocean seems boundless. 

A word used to describe or limit the meaning of a 
noun or pronoun is called an adjective. 

Note. — To limit does not necessarily signify to narrow the meaning, but 
to determine its extent. The adjective old in the sentence, " He is an old 
man," describes the man with regard to age, or limits the man spoken of, to 
a certain class. So with white, pure, ten, and boundless. 

EXERCISE II. 

Analyze these sentences, and select the nouns, verbs, pronouns, 
and adjectives. 

( 1 ) The pupil deserves great praise for his industry. 

(2) Diligent pupils receive their reward. 



1 6 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

(3) The sweet breeze shakes the green leaves. 

(4) Do you hear the merry bells peal forth a joyous 
welcome ? 

Note. — Change interrogative sentences to declarative before analyzing. 
ARTICLES. 

8. The words, a y an, and the are a kind of adjec- 
tives. They are called articles. 

A or an is called the indefinite article. 

The is called the definite article. 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound ; as, a bird, a great man, a unit, such a one. 

Note. — U?iit begins with the sound of y (consonant). One begins 
with the sound of w (consonant). 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound ; as, an orange, an apple, an inkstand. 

EXERCISE. 

In each of the following sentences, substitute the indefinite article 
for the definite. 

(1) James read the lesson from the history. 

(2) After the hour of toil, we like the time for rest. 

(3) William has learned the useful art. 

(4) The umpire is chosen for the game. 

(5) The boy found the acorn under the oak. 

(6) The honest man will be trusted. 

(7) The young man left, the hour before I did. 

(8) The pupil recited the lesson. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 1? 



ADVERBS. 



EXERCISE I. 

9. Tell what the italicized words are used for in the following 
sentences. 

(i) The man talked foolishly. 

(2) The dog ran here and there. 

(3) The judge decided carefully. 

(4) The clock strikes hourly. 

(5) You must not look down. 

(6) John is a very good boy. 

(7) The girl behaves tolerably well. 

A word used to limit the meaning of a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb, is called an adverb. 

EXERCISE II. 

Analyze the following sentences, and select the nouns, verbs, 
pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

( 1 ) A wise man acts wisely. 

(2) A very wise man acts very wisely. 

(3) Beauty is less desirable than goodness. 

(4) How impatiently the proud ship tosses ! 

(5) Sometimes boys behave foolishly. 

(6) The horse ran swiftly. 

(7) Rich men should give liberally. 

(8) Mother will soon be here. 

(9) The boy behaves very well. 



1 8 PARTS OF SPEECH, 

PHRASES. 
10. A prudent man is respected. 
A man of prudence is respected. 

These sentences express the same thought. 

In the first sentence, man is described or limited 
by the adjective prudent. 

In the second sentence, the words of prudence, 
taken together, perform the office of the adjective 
prudent. 

The sentence was written properly. 

The sentence was written in a proper manner. 

These sentences express the same thought. 

In the first sentence, was written is limited by the 
adverb properly. 

In the second sentence, the words in a proper mati- 
ner perform the office of the adverb properly. 

The sight of the sun is pleasant. 

To see the sun is pleasant. 

These sentences express the same thought. 

In the first sentence, the noun sight is the simple 
subject. 

In the second sentence, to see is the simple subject, 
performing the office of the noun sight. 

Such expressions as of prudence , in a proper man- 
ner, and to see, are called phrases. Of prudence is 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



19 



an adjective phrase; in a proper manner is an 
adverbial phrase; and to see is a noun phrase. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

11. The word that connects a phrase of which it is 
a part, to the word it limits, is called a preposition, 
because it is commonly placed before a limiting word. 

The following words are commonly prepositions, 
though many of them are sometimes adverbs, or 
subordinate conjunctions. 

about, beside, over, 

above, besides, round, 

across, between, since, 

after, betwixt, through, 

against, beyond, to, 

amid, by, towards, 

amidst, concerning, under, 

among, down, underneath, 

amongst, during, unto, 

around, except, up, 

at, for, upon, 

athwart, from, with, 

before, in, within, 

behind, into, without, 

below, of, 

beneath, on, 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

according to, instead of, out of. 



20 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The following words are sometimes used as prep- 
ositions : past for by; excepting for except ; regarding, 
respecting, touching, for concerning or about ; along, 
off, till, until. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the adjective, the adverbial, and the noun phrases, in the 
following sentences. 

( i ) Men of sense act with caution. 

(2) The men acted with calmness and with wisdom. 

(3) To err is human. To forgive is divine. 

(4) To suffer wrong is better than to do wrong. 

(5) A man of truth will be believed. 

(6) The pupils listened with attention. 

(7) Days of happiness pass with rapidity. 

(8) A lecture on history will be given. 

(9) I saw a boy in the street. 

(10) The man was in this room. 

(11) I saw him at that time. 

(12) At what time did he leave ? 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

12. George went away. William remained at home. 
These two sentences may be united so as to form 
but one : thus, — 

George went away, and William remained at home. 
George went away, but William remained at home. 
George went away, though William remained at home. 



PARTS OF SPEECH, 21 

Words used to connect sentences are called con- 
junctions. 

In uniting sentences by conjunctions, we need 
not repeat what is alike in each. 

EXERCISE. 

Unite the following sentences by and or but, and do not repeat 
what is alike in each. 

(i) Washington was a great man. Washington was a 
good man. 

(2) A prudent man will commonly succeed. An indus- 
trious man will commonly succeed. 

(3) The young lady plays the piano. The young lady 
cannot sing. 

(4) I went to church. It was very cold. 

(5) The cargo was lost. The sailors reached the shore. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Sentences formed by combining independent state- 
ments, each of which makes sense when standing 
alone, are called compound sentences. 

The conjunctions that connect such statements 
are called co-ordinate conjunctions. 

EXERCISE. 

Form a compound sentence, by uniting each of the following 
couplets, using one or more of these co-ordinate conjunctions : and, 
but, or, nor. 



22 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

( i ) Jane abused her books. Mary took good care of hers. 

(2) The river was wide. The current was strong. 

(3) You must go to work. Your family will starve. 

(4) I do not fear him. I do not avoid him. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

13. I saw a man. The man was going to New York. 

These sentences may be united thus : — 

I saw a man who was going to New York. 

In this sentence, who performs the office of a pro- 
noun and a conjunction. It means: I saw a man, 
and lie was going to New York. 

James lost a knife. John found the knife. 

These sentences may be united by which; as, 
James lost a knife, which John found. It means : 
James lost a knife, and John found it 

This is the man. He came to our house. 

We may unite these two sentences by that ; as, 
This is the man that came to our house. 

I saw the boy. His name was John. . 

These sentences may be united by whose ; as, I 
saw the boy whose name was John. 

He is the merchant. We bought goods of him. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 2$ 

These sentences may be united by whom ; as, He 
is the merchant of whom we bought goods. 

These words, who, whose, whom, which, that, when 
used in this way, are called relative pronouns. 

The noun or pronoun that a relative pronoun 
stands for, or relates to, is called its antecedent, 
because it goes before the relative pronoun. 

EXERCISE. 

Unite each couplet by a relative pronoun, and tell its antecedent. 

(i) We lived in a house. The house has been sold. 

(2) You sent for a book. I will lend you the book. 

(3) The man is my friend. You saw him at my house. 

(4) We came in a carriage. The carriage went directly 
back. 

(5) Here is a boy. I borrowed his sled. 

CLAUSES. 

A man who tells the truth will be believed. 
In this sentence, who tells the truth performs the 
office of the adjective truthful. 

I saw him when he was here. 

When he was here performs the office of the adverb 
then. 

That you know better, is certain. 



24 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

That you know better performs the office of a noun, 
the fact. 

A subordinate statement that performs the office 
of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun, is called a 
clause. 

A clause that performs the office of an adjective 
is an adjective clause; one that performs the office 
of an adverb is an adverbial clause; and one that 
performs the office of a noun is a noun clause. 

A clause may be connected with the word on 
which it depends, by a relative pronoun or a subordi- 
nate conjunction ; as, who, which, that, when, where, 
if, unless, etc. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

A sentence that contains a clause is a complex 
sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the clauses in the following sentences, and tell whether 
they are adjective, adverbial, or noun clauses. 

(i) The pupil that studies will learn. 

(2) The horse ran away when his owner left him. 

(3) I know that he told the truth. 

(4) When I saw the man, I knew him 

(5) That I should tell the truth, ] learned from my 
mother. 

(6) Every child knows when vacation begins. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 2$ 

SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The parts of speech include all the words that 
can be used in sentences. 

A word used as a name is a noun. 

A word used instead of a noun is a pronoun. 

A word used to assert is a verb. 

A word used to describe or limit a noun or pronoun 
is an adjective. 

A word used to describe or limit a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or an adverb, is an adverb. 

A word placed before a limiting word to connect 
it with the word it limits is a preposition. 

A word used to connect sentences is a conjunction. 

A word used to imply emotion, without asserting 
it, is an interjection ; as, 

Alas ! the remedy came too late. 

Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! 

The same word may perform the office of different parts 
of speech. 

(i) It is a calm day. 

(2) There was a great calm. 

(3) Calm yourself. 

In the first sentence, "calm" is an adjective ; in 
the second, it is a noun ; and in the third, it is a verb. 



26 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(i) Thou hast beset me before and behind. 

(2) The man was befoj-e the fire. 

(3) I saw the man before he saw me. 

In the first sentence, "before" is an adverb ; in 
the second, a preposition ; and in the third, a conjunc- 
tion or a conjunctive adverb, 

EXERCISE. 

Afa£e sentences in which the following words are used as dif- 
ferent parts of speech. 

Iron, water, copper, snow, I'ain, work, before, after, up, 
down. 



Co-ordinate Conjunctions. 



and, 


yet, 


if, 


lest, 


or, 


however, 


unless, 


than, 


nor, 


still, 


though, 


since, 


but, 


nevertheless. 


that, 


because. 



Note. — To give emphasis, nearly 
all these are sometimes preceded by 
corresponding conjunctions ; as, 



Subordinate Conjunctions. 



Note. — The following may be 
called subordinate conjunctions, or 
conjunctive adverbs. 



both — and, 






when, 


how, 


either — or, 






where, 


why, 


neither — nor, 






while, 


until, 


though — yet, 






before, 


ere, 


whether — or. 






after, 


till. 


Note. — How, where, 


when y 


why, z 


vhile, used interrogatively, are adverbs. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 2*] 

Part II. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

The name of an individual person or thing is a 
proper noun; as, Charles, Mary, Boston, London. 

Proper nouns, and words derived from them, should begin 
with a capital letter; as, England, English, Englishman, 
America, American, Americans, 

A name that may be applied to each individual of 
a class is a common noun; as, boy, girl, city, town, 
river, mountain. 

A common noun used to denote a single object 
consisting of many individuals is called a collective 
noun; as, army, senate, jury, school. 

Note. — An army consists of many soldiers ; a senate, of senators ; a 
jury, of jurors ; a school, of pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the proper nouns, and words derived from them, the com- 
mon nouns, and the collective nouns, in the following sentences. 

( i ) Boston is a large city. 

(2) The English nation is powerful. 

(3) Americans are proud of their country. 

(4) The jury were divided. 

(5) The senate was unanimous. 



28 CLASSES OF NOUNS, 



PERSON. 

A noun used as the name of the speaker is in the 
first person ; when used as the name of the person 
spoken to, it is in the second person; and when 
used as the name of the person or thing spoken of, 
it is in the third person. 

Note. — There is no change in the form of the noun to show its person ; 
but different personal pronouns are required to represent the speaker, the 
person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of: as, — 

/ (the speaker) was looking for my hat. Anna, you may recite your 
lesson. Virtue is its own reward. This is my hat. That is yours. I gave 
the books to them* 

NUMBER. 

A noun is commonly changed in form when it is 
used to denote more than one object : as, boy, boys ; 
girl, girls ; man, men ; Jiouse, houses. 

A noun that denotes one object is in the singular 
number; a noun that denotes more than one is in 
the plural number. 

The regular plural is formed by adding s or es to 
the singular: as, river, rivers ; tree, trees ; box, boxes ; 
church, churches. 

Some nouns form their plurals by changing /or 
fe into ves ; as, wolf, zvolves ; wife, wives ; thief, 
thieves. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 29 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form 
their plurals by changing y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; 
city, cities ; territory, territories. 

Some nouns form their plural by changing the 
vowel or vowels of the singular ; as, man, men; goose, 
geese ; tooth, teeth ; foot, feet. 

Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, 
deer, sheep, swine, series, species. 

Nouns that are distinguished by quantity instead 
of number have no plural ; as, iron, gold, silver, lazi- 
ness, flour, anger. 

Some nouns have no singular ; as, riches, alms, 
measles, bellows, scissors, pincers. 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute the plural for the singular, and the singular for the 
plural, of each noun in the following sentences; and make such 
other changes as the sense requires. 

(1) The pupil lost his book. 

(2) The star is shining upon the hill and valley. 

(3) The musician played on a fife. 

(4) They wished to buy a loaf of bread. 

(5) The bonnet suited the lady. 

(6) The man rode in a coach. 

(7) The goose hissed at the children. 

(8) I read the motto of the hero. 

(9) We were reading the story about the turkey. 



30 CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

(10) The men found knives and forks on the tables. 

(n) I will give you a key to the story of the fairy. 

(12) They told the griefs and sorrows of their lives. 

(13) The towns were burned by Tories. 

GENDER. 

The distinction of male and female is called sex. 

The name of a male is of the masculine gender; 
as, man, boy, father. 

The name of a female is of the feminine gender; 
as, woman, girl, mother 

The name of an object neither male nor female 
is of the neuter gender; as, table, book, tree. 

The distinction of sex is expressed : 

(1) By different words; as, boy, girl; husband, 
wife ; uncle, aunt ; man, woman. 

(2) By words prefixed ; as, man-servant, maid- 
servant ; male child, female child ; he-goat, she-goat. 

(3) By difference of termination ; as, abbot, abbess ; 
e7nperor, empress ; hero, heroine ; widower, widow; 
administrator, administratrix. 

Note. — The difference of termination is made in comparatively few 
nouns, and they are constantly becoming less. 

EXERCISE. 

In each of the following sentences, change the italicized noun from 
the masculine to the feminine form, or from feminine to masculine, 
with other changes to correspond. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 3 1 

(1) The man was earnest in the cause of temperance. 

(2) The lady was away from home. 

(3) The judge appointed an administratrix upon the 
estate. 

(4) The boy came to thank his host 

(5) The flock had been in the charge of a shepherdess, 

(6) The children were fond of their brother. 

(7) These are nuptial gifts for the bridegroom. 

(8) Who was the heroine of the story? 

(9) A lonely widower sat by his fireside. 
(10) Who is the heiress to the large estate? 

CASE. 

Case is a term used to denote the relation which a 
noun or pronoun sustains to some other word. 

There are three cases, — the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

The noun has but one change (the possessive) to 
indicate case. But some of the personal pronouns, 
and one of the relative pronouns, have three forms 
to show the relations of subject, object, and ownership 
or possession. 

Note. — In the sentence, " William sees James," we know that William 
is the subject, simply by its position. If the same words were arranged 
thus, u James sees William," "James " would be the subject. 

But in the sentence, " He sees him," the case of the pronouns is shown 
by their form. If it were written, " Him he sees," we should know that 
"he" is the subject, from its form. 



32 CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

The possessive case singular is formed by adding 
an apostrophe and s to the noun ; as, Mary 's, John 's, 
James 's. 

When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is 
added ; as, boys. When the plural does not end in 
s 9 the possessive is formed by adding the apostrophe 
and s, as in the singular ; as, men 's. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Singular. Boy's, Man's, Lady's, Hero's, 

Plural. Boys', Men's, Ladies', Heroes'. 

Nouns ending in ss or nee, generally take the apos- 
trophe only; as, " iox conscience* sake," " for goodness 
sake." 

EXERCISE. 

Write the following sentences, putting the italicized nouns in the 
possessive case. 

(i) The story was taken from the Fables of sEsop. 

(2) He is freed from the troubles of life. 

(3) This sled belongs to my brother. 

(4) Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

(5) The ways of wisdom are pleasantness. 

(6) I borrowed a book belonging to Anna. 

(7) The point of an ai-row is sharp. 

(8) The points of the arrows were broken. 

(9) The shawl of the lady was handsome. 
(10) The bonnets of the ladies were gay. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



33 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

DECLENSION. 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative. I. We. 

Possessive. My ermine. Our or ours. 

Objective. Me. Us. 





SECOND PERSON. 






Common Style. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


A T o?ninative. 


You. 


You. 


Possessive. 


Your or yours, 


Your or yours. 


Objective. 


You. 

Poetic Style. 


You. 


Nominative. 


Thou. 


Ye. 


Possessive. 


Thy or thine. 


Your or yours. 


Objective. 


Thee. 


You. 



THIRD PERSON (singular). 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nominative. He. She. It. 

Possessive. His. Her or hers. Its. 

Objective. Him. Her. It. 

THIRD PERSON (plural) all genders. 
Nominative. They, 

Possessive. Their or theirs. 

Objective. Them. 



34 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute a persona/ pronoun for each italicized word in the 
following sentences. 

(i) Mary read in Mary's book. 

(2) John's sled is broken. 

(3) The man acquired his property honestly. 

(4) Boys are sometimes careless. 

(5) I have noticed carelessness in boys. 

(6) This is the man whom I saw. 

(7) I gave the kite to Robert. 

(8) Then the kite was Robert's. 

(9) The apples were ripe. 

(10) The boys went to gather the apples. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, thyself, him- 
self, herself, itself, themselves, are called compound 
personal pronouns, and are used only in the nom- 
inative and objective cases ; as, / myself did it. You 
wrong yourself . We cannot see oitrs elves. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply the proper compound personal pronoun in each of the 
following sentences. 

(1) I saw the man . 

(2) We are to blame. 

(3) Thou mayst see. 

(4) I tell you that which you do know. 



PRONOUNS. 35 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative pronoun performs the office of a pro- 
noun and a subordinate conjunction. It is used only 
in clauses of complex sentences. As a pronoun, it 
represents a noun or pronoun, called its antecedent. 
As a subordinate conjunction, it connects the clause 
in which it stands, with its antecedent. It is not 
varied in form on account of person and number. 

Who and which are thus declined : — 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 
Nominative. wh o, wh i c h , 

Possessive. whose, whose, 

Objective. whom. which. 

That is indeclinable. 

Who is applied to persons ; as, This is the boy who 
spoke to me. 

Which is applied to inferior animals or to things 
without life ; as, I paid for the goods which were sent 
me. The carriage which brought us has returned. 

That is applied both to persons and things ; as, 
The man that was here has gone. The house that was 
burned was insured. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply the proper relative pronoun in each of the following 
sentences. 



36 PRONOUNS. 

(i) The carriage we came in has returned. 

(2) The man you saw was my friend. 

(3) The book I borrowed has been returned. 

(4) I will gladly loan you the book you sent for. 

(5) The gentlemen company we expected, did not 

come. 

(6) The lady spoke to me is my sister. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

What, whatever, whoever, whichever, or whatsoever, 
whosoever, whichsoever, connect clauses like relative 
pronouns, but are used only when the antecedent is 
omitted ; as, I know what is wanted. Whosoever will, 
may come. 

These words may be regarded as implying both 
the antecedent and the relative. 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute a compound relative for the italicized words in the 
following sentences. 

(1) You have done that which you should be sorry for. 

(2) Those things which cannot be prevented must be 
borne patiently. 

(3) He who acts uprightly will be respected. 

(4) The things which I brought home, I gave to my 
brother. 

(5) This is exactly the thing that was wanted. 



PRONOUNS. 37 

(6) We can have that which we prefer. 

(7) They stood mourning for the things which they had 
lost. 

(8) The man who injures another is his own foe. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Who, which, and what, when used in asking ques- 
tions, are called interrogative pronouns; as, Who 
is this ? Which is the house? What do y oil want? 

Which and what are also used as interrogative 
adjectives; as, Which way did lie go? What book 
have y oil been reading? 

EXERCISE. 

Supply the proper interrogative pronouns or adjectives in these 
sentences. 

( 1 ) spoke to you ? 

(2) did he say ? 

(3) did you speak? 

(4) hat is this ? 

(5) way did he go ? 

(6) book will you take? 



38 VERBS. 

VERBS. 

MODE. 

The manner in which a verb is used is called its 
mode. 

There are four modes, — the indicative, the 
potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative. 

The indicative mode is used to declare the act 
expressed by the verb ; as, / will go. The boy rims. 

The potential mode is used to express possibility, 
liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity, by the 
use of may, can, must, might, could, would, or should ; 
as, I may go. The boy may leave the room. He can 
go. He might go. He could go. He should go. He 
would go. He must go. 

The subjunctive mode is used in a clause (or 
subjoined statement), to express a condition ; as, I 
would go if I were you. 

Note. — Bain says, "The verb be has a peculiar inflection to express 
contingency or conditionality ; it is the only real conditional or subjunctive 
mode [form] in English, and is in the past tense." 

The present subjunctive, if I be, if you be, if he be, seems to be an ellipti- 
cal form for if I should be, etc. So is if he love, and the like. (See Bain's 
" Higher English Grammar," p. 98.) 

The elliptical form {if I be, if it rain), although 
formerly in frequent use, is now properly used only 
in reference to future time. 



VERBS. 39 

Whenever the condition refers to present time, the 
present indicative form should be used ; as, " If 
James is sick (now), we must send for a doctor.'' 

The imperative mode is used to express a com- 
mand or entreaty ; as, Boys, study your lessons. Give 
its this day our daily bread. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences, 
and supply what is omitted in the elliptical forms. 

(i) Napoleon I. died at St. Helena. 

(2) Give us this day our daily bread. 

(3) If it be fair to-morrow, I shall go. 

(4) Go / get you gone. 

(5) Thou shalt not steal. 

(6) Let us, then, be up and doing. 

(7) It is fair weather now, but it may rain to-morrow. 

(8) If it rain, I shall not go. 

(9) The humblest painter, let him be ever so poor, 
thinks he is an artist. 

(10) Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 

(11) Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

An infinitive is a form of the verb that merely 
names its action. 

It performs the office of a noun, and may be called 
a verbal noun. 



40 VERBS. 

Every verb has two infinitives. One is the simple 
form of the verb ; as, speak, go, hear. 

The simple form is used after may, shall, will, etc., 
in forming the tenses of verbs. 

The preposition to is often placed before the simple 
infinitive, making a phrase ; as, {to) see, (to) believe. 

The other form of the infinitive is the same as 
that of the imperfect participle ; as, seeing is believ- 
ing. This is called the infinitive in ing. 

Infinitives, though used as nouns, may be limited 
like the verbs from which they are derived. 

In the sentence, I saw him go, "go" is a simple 
infinitive. In, / told him to go, "to go" is an 
infinitive phrase. 

In, Going is as easy as standing, "going" and 
" standing" are infinitives in ing. 

Note. — Bain, in his " Higher English Grammar," p. 97, says that, 
" When the two forms of the infinitive have the sense of purpose or inten- 
tion, they are called gerunds ; as, / come to write ; ready for sailing : a house 
to let." 

In old English, the preposition for was sometimes placed before the 
infinitive phrase (or gerund) ; as, What went ye out for to see ? (See 
Appendix.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

A participle is a form of the verb that performs 
the office of an adjective, and may be called a verbal 
adjective. 



VERBS. 41 

There are two participles, — the imperfect and 
the perfect. They have no tense, but simply ex- 
press incomplete or complete action. 

The imperfect participle always ends in ing, having 
the same form as the infinitive in ing. 

The perfect participle commonly ends in d, t, or n. 

Imperfect Participle, Perfect Participle, 
loving, loved, 

seeing, seen, 

teaching. taught. 

By prefixing having to the perfect participle, we 
form a compound perfect participle; as, having 
loved, having seen, having taught. 

Participles, though used as adjectives, may be lim- 
ited like the verbs from which they are derived, 

TENSE. 

The verb asserts an action as present, past, or 
future ; and also as complete or incomplete. This 
gives rise to six tenses, — present, present perfect, 
past, past perfect, future, future perfect. 

The present tense indicates present time, and 
incomplete action, as, / write ; or habitual and still 
continuing action, as, I am writing. 

The past tense indicates past time, and incom- 
plete action ; as, / wrote, I was writing. 



42 VERBS. 

The present perfect tense indicates an action 
completed at the present time ; as, / have written, I 
have been writing. 

The past perfect tense indicates an action com- 
pleted at some past time ; as, / had written, I had 
been writing. 

The future tense indicates future time and in- 
complete action ; as, / shall write, I shall be writing. 

The future perfect tense indicates an action to 
be completed at some future time; as, I shall have 
written, I shall have been writing. 

EXERCISE I. 

Tell the tense of the italicized verbs in these sentences. 

(i) William studies his lessons every day. He is study- 
ing now. 

(2 ) William studied his lessons yesterday. He was study- 
ing when I saw him. 

(3) William has studied his lessons to-day. He has been 
studying all day. 

(4) William had studied his lessons before he came to 
school. 

(5) William had been studying his lessons before I met 
him. 

(6) William will study to-morrow. William will be study- 
ing to-morrow. 



VERBS. 43 

(7) William will have studied before he recites. 

(8) William will have been studying an hour before 
recitation. 

EXERCISE II. 

Supply the proper tense of the verb read in each of the following 
sentences. 

( 1 ) The boy now. He at the present time. 

(2) The boy to-morrow. He to-morrow. 

(3) The boy yesterday. He yesterday. 

(4) The boy before I saw him. He before I 

saw him. 

(5) The boy before this time. He till the 

present time. 

(6) The boy before to-morrow morning. He 

before to-morrow morning. 

CLASSES OF VERBS. 

Verbs are divided with regard to form, into two 
classes, — regular and irregular. 

A regular verb forms its past tense of the indica- 
tive mode, and its perfect participle, by adding ed to 
the simple form; or ^/only, when the verb ends in e : 
as, 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

play, played, played, 

love. loved. loved. 



44 VERBS. 

Verbs that do not form their past tense and per- 
fect participle by adding ed, or d when the verb ends 
in e, are irregular; as, 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


see, 


saw, 


seen. 


teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten or forgot 



A verb which can be used in but part of the modes 
and tenses is a defective verb ; as, quoth, ought. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

A verb is called transitive when it requires a 
noun or pronoun as the direct object of its action ; 
as, James sees William (or him.) 

A verb is called intransitive when it does not re- 
quire a noun or pronoun in the objective case; as, 
James runs. 

Note. — Most verbs may be used transitively or intransitively ; as, The 
man sees the boy (or him). Here, sees is transitive. But in the sentence, 
The man sees clearly (meaning he is not blind), sees is intransitive. 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 

Transitive verbs may be used in two ways, to 
express the same thought, called the active and 
passive voice. 

The active voice represents the subject as the 
actor; as, James sees William. 



VERBS. 45 

The passive voice represents the subject as the 
person or thing acted upon; as, William is seen 
by James. 

EXERCISE. 

Change the active to the passive voice in these sentences. 

( i ) My father built a house. 

( 2 ) The boy broke the window. 

(3) The stabler lets horses. 

(4) The lady rang the bell. 

(5) The legislature makes laws. 

(6) Lee and Shepard published the book. 

(7) My father told me the story. 

(8) I heard a loud noise. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The different modes and tenses are formed (with 
one exception) by the help of one of these words : 
do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, will, may, can, 
must, might, could, would, should. 

They are called auxiliary verbs. 

CONJUGATION. 

A connected view of a verb in its several modes 
and tenses is called its conjugation. 

Conjugation of the verb love in the active voice : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

love. loved. loved. 



46 VERBS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

f love, or do love. 
Present A loves, or does love, when the subject is third 

[ person singular. 
Past, loved, or did love. 

Note. — Do love, does love, and did love, are used for emphasis, and in 
interrogative sentences. 

f have loved. 
Present perfect \ has loved, when the subject is third per- 

[ son singular. 
Past Perfect, had loved. 
Future, shall or will love. 
Future perfect, shall or will have loved. 

In poetic style, the verb or its auxiliary is varied 
in form, when the subject is in the second person 
singular; as, 

Present, lovest, or dost love. 

Past, lovedst, or didst love. 

Present perfect, hast loved. 

Past perfect, hadst loved. 

Future, shalt or wilt love. 

Future perfect, shalt or wilt have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, may, can, must ) 

' love. 



Past, 1 might, could, would, should 



! 



1 This is usually called the past tense, because might, could, wotcld, should, 
are inflections of may, can, will, and shall. But they have now lost their past signi- 
fication, and are used with the simple form of the verb, in expressing present or 
future time. 



VERBS. 47 

P re se?it perfect, may, can, must have ) , 

> loved. 
Past perfect, might, could, would, should have ) 

In poetic style, the auxiliaries of the verb are varied 
inform, with a subject in the second person singular. 

Present, mayst, canst, ) 

1 love. 



} 



Past, mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst 

Present perfect, mayst, canst, have ) 

> loved. 
Past perfect, mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst, have J 

By reference to the conjugation of the verb love, it 
will be seen that the simple form of the present in- 
dicative is the same as the infinitive without the sign 
to ; as, / love. I write. In the third person singular, 
present indicative, s is added to the simple form. 

In declarative sentences the past indicative is 
formed by inflecting or changing the simple form ; 
as, Present, I love. Past, I loved. Present, I write. 
Past, I wrote. 

In declarative sentences the auxiliaries do {does, 
did), shall, will, may, can, must, might, cotild, would, 
should, are only used immediately before the simple 
form of the verb ; as, / do go. You shall stay. He 
must write, etc. 

In declarative sentences the auxilary have (has, 
had) is only used immediately before the perfect 
participle ; as, / have zvritten. He has goiie. You 
may have recited. 



48 VERBS. 

The auxiliary do (does, did\ is frequently used in 
interrogative, negative, and emphatic sentences ; as, 
Do yon wish to see me ? I do not wish to see you. I 
do wish to see y oil. 

Note. — It will be noticed, that in interrogative sentences the subject 
separates the auxiliary from the verb. In negative sentences the adverb not 
separates them. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (Old Form). 
f If I write. 
Present ^ If thou or you write. v 

[ If he write. 

Note. — Formerly the present subjunctive was used in expressing pres- 
ent time ; but at present it is properly used only when reference is had to 
future time. Even then, it is regarded by the most learned grammarians as 
an elliptical form of the potential. (See note, p. 38.) 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

This mode is used only in the present tense, with 
a subject in the second person, and has the form of 
the indicative present ; as, love, or do love. 

INFINITIVES. 

The infinitive, though it has no tense, has the 
forms of the indicative present, and present perfect, to 
denote unfinished and finished action ; as, (to) love, 
(to) have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. Peifect. Compoimd Perfect. 

loving. loved. having loved. 



VERBS. 49 

Conjugation of the verb be: — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past. Perfect Part. 

am. was. been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Am, with a subject first person singular. 
Is, with a subject third person singular. 
Are, with any other subject. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am. we 1 



You are. you 

He is. they 



! 



Past Tense. 



Was, with a subject first or third person singular. 

Were, with any other subject. 

I was. we ") 

You were. you y were. 

He was. they J 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Has been, with a subject third person singular. 

Have been, with any other subject. 
I have been. we 1 

You have been. you > have been. 
He has been. they J 



50 VERBS. 

Past perfect, had been. 
Future, shall or will be. 
Future perfect, shall or will have been. 

Poetic Style. 
Present, art. 

Past, wast. 

Present perfect, hast been. 

Past perfect, hadst been. 

Future, shalt <?r wilt be. 

Future perfect shalt <?r wilt have been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, may, can, must ) 

> be. 
Past, might, could, would, should ) 

Present perfect, may, can, must have 

vbeen. 



!■ 



Past perfect, might, could, would, should have 

In poetic style, with a subject in the second per- 
son singular, st is added to each auxiliary, except 
must ; as, mayst, canst, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The subjunctive mode is the same in form as the 
indicative and potential, except in the past tense of 
the verb be. (See note, p. 38.) 

Plural. 
If we ^ 
If you \ were. 
If they J 
Poetic style, if thou wert. 




VERBS. 5 1 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present, be or do be. 

INFINITIVES. 

(To) be. (To) have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

being. been. having been. 

THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

There is another form of the active voice peculiar 
to the English language, called the progressive 
form. It represents an action progressing; begun, 
but not finished. 

It is formed by prefixing the verb be in all its 
modes and tenses to the imperfect participle of a 
verb ; as, 

I am "I We are "] 



You are y walking. You are > 

He is J They are J 



walking. 



EXERCISE. 

Put the following sentences in the progressive form, in all the 
modes and tenses. 

The girls gather flowers. 
The man tells the truth. 
Does the man tell the truth? 



52 VERBS. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The passive voice is formed by prefixing the 
verb be, in all its modes and tenses, to the perfect 
participle of a transitive verb ; as, 

I am 1 We are 1 

You are V loved. You are I loved. 

He is J They are J 

INFINITIVE PASSIVE. 

Present. Perfect. 

(To) be loved. (To) have been loved. 

PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

being loved. loved. having been loved. 

Note. — The imperfect active participle is sometimes used in a passive 
sense ; as, The house is building: and the perfect participle is always passive; 
as, The man taken (or being taken) in the act, was punished. 

EXERCISE. 

Put the following sentences in the passive voice, in all the modes 
and tenses. 

James sees William. Does James see William ? 



VERBS. 53 

To Teachers. — It has been common to include person and number as 
properties of the verb. But the verb has no person and number, in the same 
sense that nouns and pronouns have. 

In many languages the verb is varied in form to show the person and 
number of the subject. 

Thus, the Latin verb amdre (to love) is conjugated in the indicative mode 
present tense, as follows : — 

First Person Singular. Plural. 

amo (I love). amamus (we love). 

Second Person Singular. Plural. 

a mas (you love). amdtis (you love). 

Third Person Singular. Plural. 

amat (he loves). amant (they love). 

The other modes and tenses have similar changes. 

Here it will be noticed that the Latin verb has a special form for each 
person and number ; while in English, we use the same form five times out of 
six, — it being varied only by adding s in the indicative present when the 
subject is third person singular. 

This, and changing have to has in the present perfect indicative (when 
the subject is third person singular), are the only changes for person and 
number, in common style, in all the modes and tenses. (See conjugation of 
the verb love.) 

The irregular verb be has a special form for the first and third person 
singular, ot the present and past tenses of the indicative. (See conjugation 
ot the verb be.) 

With this explanation, it is recommended that in parsing or giving the 
construction of verbs, pupils be required to state what changes have been 
made, and omit any reference to person and number when the form is not 
changed. 

A knowledge of these changes is of practical value in writing correctly, 
while the rule commonly given is not. 

If, however, teachers prefer to have the rule given, pupils should under- 
stand what, and how little, it means. 



54 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

Adjectives are varied in form to express different 
degrees of the same quality ; as, great, greater, great- 
est ; industrious, more industrious, most industrious ; 
happy, less happy, least happy. 

The change in form to denote different degrees of 
quality is called comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison, — the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive simply expresses the quality. 

The comparative expresses a higher or lower degree 
of the quality. 

The superlative expresses the highest or lowest 
degree of the quality. 

Adjectives of one syllable, and many adjectives 
of two syllables, express a higher and the highest 
degree by the addition of r or er, st or est, to the 
positive. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are usually 
compared by prefixing more and most to the positive. 

All adjectives that admit of different degrees of 
the quality, are made to express a lower and the 
lowest degree of the quality by prefixing less and 
least to the positive. 

Many adverbs are compared like adjectives ; as, 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 55 

soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, of tenest ; pleasantly, 
more (or less) pleasantly, most (or least) pleasantly. 

Note. — These are general rules, but not always strictly adhered to. All 
adjectives that admit of the degrees of comparison may be compared by 
more and most ; as, It is most true. He possesses the most ample means. 
One boy is more industrious than another. 

Some adjectives are irregularly compared ; as, 



Positive. 


Comparatiie. 


Superlative. 


good, 


better, 


best. 


bad, ill, or evil, 


worse, 


worst. 


little, 


less, 


least. 


late, 


later, 


latest or last. 


much or many, 


more, 


most, 




inner, 


inmost or innermost. 




nether, 


nethermost. 




upper, 


uppermost or upmost, 



This, that, these, those, former, latter, each, every, 
either, some, one, any, all, snch, are more properly 
classed with the adjective than with the pronoun, 
since they will always admit a noun after them, like 
other adjectives used as nouns ; as, This {man) is 
the person. Each (poter) has a ballot. Some {persons) 
think so. The former {statement) is true, the latter 
{statement) is not. 

Note. — The usual division into demonstrative ) distributive, and indefi- 
nite, is not a grammatical distinction, but one dependent on the meaning. 



5 6 SYNTAX. 

Part III. 

SYNTAX. 

CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT. 

By construction is meant the grammatical rela- 
tion of the words in a sentence. Arrangement has 
reference simply to their position ; as, 

The acquisition of knowledge is one of the most pleasing 
employments of the human mind in every period of life. 

In every period of life, the acquisition of knowledge is 
one of the most pleasing employments of the human mind. 

In these sentences the arrangement is different, 
but the construction is the same. 

Rule l. The subject of a sentence is in the nom- 
inative case. 

Note 1. — The subject may be a noun, as, "John studies;" or a pro- 
noun, as, " He learns ; " or a phrase, as, " To see the sun is pleasant ; " or a 
clause, as, " That he told the truth is evident." 

Note 2. — Two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by and, 
and meaning different things, are equivalent in construction to a plural noun ; 
as, James and John {they) have lost their books. If they are connected by or 
or nor, they remain singular ; as, James or John has lost his books. 

Note 3. — When the verb is in the imperative mode, the subject is not 
commonly expressed 

Note 4. — In arrangement, the subject is generally placed before the 
predicate. But in interrogative sentences, and in sentences introduced by 



SYNTAX. 57 

there or here, the subject is placed after the verb, or between the auxiliary 
and the verb; as, Are you well? Will you go with me? There are seven 
days in a week. Here is the book. 

Note 5. — In the subjunctive mode, a condition may be expressed by 
inverting the subject and predicate ; as, Were it not so, I would tell you. 



Rule 2. — A verb must agree with its subject in 
number and person ; as, / teach. He teaches, I Jiave 
tangJit. He has taught. 

Remark. — It is recommended, that pupils be required to tell when and 
what changes are made in the verb, until they become familiar with them. 
They will then be able to apply the rule advantageously. 

Note 1. — A compound subject consisting of two or more singular nouns 
denoting different persons or things, and connected by and, requires the 
plural form of the verb ; as, " Virtue and vice have their reward." 

Note 2. — If the nouns denote the same or similar things, the verb has, 
commonly, the singular form ; as, " This good man and exemplary Christian 
is no more." " A bustle, and the sound of horses' feet was now heard." 

Note 3. — A compound subject, consisting of two or more singular nouns 
connected by or or nor, requires the singular form of the verb ; as, " The 
boy's father or mother deserves great praise." 

Note 4. — If one of the nouns constituting a compound subject is plural, 
the verb is commonly plural ; as, " William and his brothers were present." 
" Neither Sarah nor her sisters were there." 

Note 5. — If the nouns or pronouns constituting a compound subject are 
of different persons, the verb must agree with the one which immediately 
precedes it ; as, " You or I am in error." 

Rule 3. Adjectives and participles directly limit 
nouns, and substitutes for nouns ; as, The kind king, 
extending his hand, raised this suppliant. 



58 SYNTAX. 

Remark. — When a word limits another without the use of a preposition, 
the limitation is direct; when the words are connected by a preposition, it is 
indirect. 

Note 1. — An adjective may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. 

Note 2. — Adjectives implying unity or plurality must agree in number 
with nouns; as, This man; these men; ten men. 

Note 3. — Many is used with a singular noun, when followed by the 
indefinite article; as, Many a man. Full many a gem. 

Note 4. — An adjective limiting the predicate refers to the subject, and 
is called the predicate adjective ; as, The boy is kind. 

Note 5. — An adjective is commonly placed before the noun it limits : 
but when it is itself limited by a phrase, it follows the noun ; as, The master 
found the pupil adequate to the task. 

Rule 4. Adverbs directly modify verbs, adjectives,' 
and other adverbs ; as, He was a very wise man. 
The boy acted very foolishly. 

Note 1. — An adverb may be a word, a phrase, or a clause; as,7Yz£ boy 
is here. He is in this room. He came before school began. 

Note 2. — What are called "adverbs of affirmation and negation" (re- 
sponsives), yes, no, yea, nay, perform the office of a sentence ; as, Will you 
go ? Yes, — that is, I -will go. 

Note 3. — There, when not an adverb of place, adds nothing to the 
sense, but simply inverts the order of the subject and predicate. It is an 
expletive, and does not limit ; as, There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

Rule 5. A noun or pronoun directly limiting an- 
other, and denoting the same person or thing, is in 
the same case, by apposition ; as, Homer the poet 
was blind. He spoke of Howard the philanthropist. 
We the subscribers agree, etc. 



SYNTAX. 59 

Note 1. — The parts taken separately, are often in apposition with the 
whole ; as, The men struck each other. Here each is in apposition with 
men, denoting them separately, and other is the object of struck. 

Note 2. — Parts connected by a conjunction may be collectively in appo- 
sition with the whole ; as, " The people dispersed some this way, others that 
way. 

Rule 6. Intransitive and passive verbs have the 
same case after as before them, when both words 
denote the same person or thing ; as, / am he. It 
is /. I know it to be him. He was called John. 

Rule 7. A noun or pronoun denoting possession, 
and directly limiting another noun, is in the possessive 
case ; as, William s book has been badly used. 

Note 1. — This is the only case-inflection of the noun. 

Note 2. — Two or more nouns denoting joint owners have the posses- 
sive form affixed only to the last ; as, " Harper and Sanford'j- pianofortes." 

Note 3. — If the nouns denote the several owners, the possessive form 
must be given to each ; as, " William'^, John\r, and Mary'i- books." 

Note 4. — A phrase in the possessive has the case sign at the end ; as, 
" The queen of England 9 s health." " Anybody else's mistake." 

Note 5. — In such expressions as, "It came from Brown's the grocer," 
or " from Brown the grocer's," the sign of the possessive may be appended 
to either noun, but not to both. 

Rule 8. The direct object of an active transitive 
verb is in the objective case; as, I saw him. We 
heard them. 

Note 1. — Participles and infinitives derived from transitive verbs take 
the objective case after them ; as, " Seeing him pleased me." " The boy, see- 
ing me, ran to me." 



6o SYNTAX. 

Bale a Prepositions take the objective case after 
them ; as, I spoke to him, and he replied to me. 

Rule 10. An infinitive phrase may limit a verb, 
noun, adjective, or adverb: as, A desire to excel; 
used to play with ; ready to play ; too rapidly to stop. 

Note 1. — After bid, dare, hear, feel, make, see, let, need, and a few 
others in the active voice, the simple infinitive (without the sign id) is used. 

Note 2. — When the infinitive phrase is used as a subject, it has no ante- 
cedent term of relation ; as, To see the sun is pleasant. But when the sen- 
tence is inverted, to connects ; as, It is pleasant to see the sun, 

Hule 11. A noun or pronoun having no grammati- 
cal^ relation to other words is used independently in 
the , nominative case. 

Note 1. — i. By direct address ; as, " Charles, come to me." 

2. By exclamation ; as, " Poor Indians ! where are they now ? " 

3. By redundancy ; as, " The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they ? " 

4. With a participle ; as, " The ship having arrived, the sailors left." 
Note 2. — The first person of the personal pronoun is sometimes used 

independently in the objective case ; as, Me miserable ! Ah me ! 

Rule 12. Pronouns must agree in person, number, 
and gender, with the nouns they represent ; as, Jane 
saw her mother. William takes care of his brother. 

Exception. — It is sometimes used without reference to the gender or 
number of the noun it represents ; as, " When I took the child, it cried." " It 
is our passio7is which we ought most to fear." 

Note 1. — This rule requires no change of form in the relative pronouns ; 
and the form in personal pronouns is not changed for gender, except in the 
third person singular. 



SYNTAX. 6 1 

Note 2. — A noun personified requires the pronoun to agree with it in 
gender, in the figurative sense ; as, " Give to Repose the solemn hour she 
claims." 

Note 3. — A phrase or a clause used as a noun is in the thircTperson, 
singular number, neuter gender. 

Rule 13. A preposition connects a limiting word 
with the word limited ; as, He spoke to me. He is 
a man of sense. 

Note 1. — The preposition is commonly placed before the nouns or pro- 
nouns they govern, except in interrogative sentences. 

Rule 14. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
clauses, and sentences ; as, Four and five are nine. 
I saw the man in the street and at his home. He 
came before I left. James abused his books, but 
Sarah carefully preserved hers. 

Note 1. — Co-ordinate conjunctions connect the same or similar parts of 
speech, phrases and clauses in the same construction ; as, "James and William 
went home." " I saw the boy and the girl." " The man spoke slowly and 
distinctly." " We are required to deal justly and to love mercy." 

Note 2. — In almost all cases in which words and phrases in the same 
construction are connected, they may be regarded as contracted sentences 
(see p. 21). There are a few exceptional cases in which no such contraction 
exists ; as, Four and five are nine. John and Jane are a handsome couple. 

Note 3. — Subordinate conjunctions and relative pronouns connect 
clauses with the statements limited by them ; as, " I shall go if I can." " I 
saw the man that called." " He was here while you were absent." 

Rule 15. Interjections have no grammatical rela- 
tion to other words. 



62 PUNCTUATION, 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punetuation treats of the method of dividing writ- 
ten language into sentences and parts of sentences. 

CHARACTERS USED IN PUNCTUATION. 



Period, 


. 


Comma, 


> 


Interrogation, 


? 


Dash, 


— 


Exclamation, 


j 


Parentheses, 


() 


Colon, 




Quotation, 


u W 


Semicolon, 


5 


Apostrophe, 


f 



THE PERIOD. 

Rule 1. A period should be placed at the end of a 
declarative sentence ; as, 

Life is short. 

Rule 2. A period should be used after initials and 
abbreviations ; as, 

D. Webster, U. S. A., R. I., Mass., Gov. 

THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

Rule. An interrogation point should be placed at 
the end of an interrogative- sentence ; as, 
Where did you see him ? 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

Rule 1. An exclamation point should be placed at 
the end of an exclamatory sentence ; as, 
Hurry, hurry to the field ! 



PUNCTUA TION. 63 

Rule 2. An exclamation point is used after words 
or phrases expressing passion or emotion ; as, 
Poor Indians ! where are they now? 

THE COMMA. 

Rule 1. A simple sentence requires no comma, 
when the arrangement and construction coincide ; 
as, 

This destruction raged from Madras to Tanjore for eigh- 
teen months without intermission. 

Rule 2. When the arrangement and construction 
do not coincide, the inversion may be marked by a 
comma ; as, 

For eighteen months, this destruction raged, without in- 
termission, from Madras to Tanjore. 

Rule 3. Explanatory clauses are separated from 
the statements or clauses on which they depend, by 
a comma ; as, 

We see the emblem of our fate in flowers, which bloom 
and die. 

Rule 4. Restrictive clauses are not commonly sep- 
arated from the statements or clauses on which they 
depend ; as, 

A man that steals deserves punishment. 

Rule 5. A series of words or phrases in the same 
construction requires a comma to indicate the omis- 



64 PUNC TUA TION. 

sion of the conjunction, — and between the last two 
of the series, though the conjunction is expressed ; as, 

Happy is the man who honors, obeys, loves, and serves 
his Creator. 

To live soberly, to speak truthfully, and to act honestly, 
is the duty of every man. 

Rule 6. Contrasted words and phrases are sepa- 
rated by a comma ; as, 

He was a great poet, but a bad man. 

Rule 7. Nouns in apposition are separated by a 
comma when the word used to explain is limited by 
other words ; as, 

Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal. 

Rule 8. A comma should be placed before the 
conjunction or when what follows it, explains, or is 
in apposition with what precedes it ; as, 

I heard the voice of the skipper, or captain of the boat. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

Rule 1. The members of a compound sentence 
may be separated by a semicolon ; as, 

Every gift of Heaven is sometimes abused ; but good 
sense and fine talents, by a natural law, gravitate towards 
virtue. 

Note. — If the sentence is short, and neither of the members is sub- 
divided, they may be separated by a comma. 



PUNCTUA TION. 6 5 

Rule 2. Clauses and phrases, having a common 
dependence, may be separated by a semicolon when 
one of them is divisible by a comma ; as, 

He who, in the study of science, has discovered a new 
means of alleviating pain ; who has suggested a new method 
of remedying disease, — has left a memorial of himself never 
to be forgotten. 

Rule 3. As, or namely, introducing an example, is 
preceded by a semicolon, and followed by a comma ; as, 

We should speak the truth. 

THE COLON. 

Rule. The colon is sometimes used to separate 
parts of a sentence, one of which is subdivided by a 
semicolon ; as, 

The sentence was divided into two parts : in the first was 
shown the necessity of exercise ; in the second, the advan- 
tage that results from it. 

THE DASH, ETC. 

Rule 1. The dash is used to denote that a sen- 
tence is incomplete ; as, 

Once, upon a time, some men dressed all alike — 

Rule 2. To denote an abrupt turn in the form of 
the sentence, or in the sentiment ; as, 

Was there ever — But I scorn to boast. 

I said — I know not what. 



66 PUNCTUA TION. 

Rule 3. To enclose a parenthetical phrase or 
clause ; as, 

Know, then, this truth, — enough for man to know, — 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

Marks of parenthesis denote that the words en- 
closed may be omitted without injuring the con- 
struction of the sentence, or detracting materially 
from the sense ; as, 

Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

Note. — Either method of marking what is parenthetical is allowable, the 
dashes being commonly used where the parenthesis is short. 

Quotation-marks denote that the passage enclosed 
is taken in the words of the author ; as, The poet 
says, 

" The proper study of mankind is man." 

An apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or 
letters, and is the sign of the possessive case of 
nouns ; as, 

I'm sure of it, you'll ne'er forget. 

A friend should bear a friend's infirmities. 

USE OF CAPITALS. 

Rule l. The first word of a sentence should begin 
with a capital ; as, 
The boy studies. 



PUNCTUATION. 67 

Rule 2. Proper nouns, and words derived from 
them, should begin with capitals ; as, 
Spain, Spanish, Spaniard. 

Rule 3. All names applied to the Deity should be- 
gin with capitals ; as, 

God. The Almighty. The Supreme Being. 

Rule 4. The names of the months, and of the days 
of the week, should begin with capitals ; as, 
January, February : Tuesday, Friday. 

Rule 5. The names of public bodies should begin 
with capitals ; as, 

The Legislature ; Boston Temperance Society. 

Rule 6. The words I and O are written with capi- 
tals. 

Rule 7. The names of religious denominations and 
political parties should begin with capitals ; as, 
Baptists, Methodists, Republicans, Democrats. 
Rule a All titles should begin with capitals ; as, 
Mr., Col., Esq., Rev., Dr. 

Rule 9. A direct quotation should begin with a 
capital ; as, They said, 

" Never man spake like this man." 

Rule 10. The principal words in the titles or divis- 



68 PUNCTUA TION. 

ions of a book or discourse should begin with capitals ; 
as, 

Rules for Analysis and Construction. 

Rule 11. The first word in every line of poetry 
should begin with a capital ; as, 

" The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me," 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 



6 9 



Part IV. 



TABLE OF IRREGULAR PLURALS, FOR REF- 
ERENCE. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


man, 


men. 


OX, 


oxen. 


woman, 


women. 


tooth, 


teeth. 


child, 


children. 


mouse, 


mice. 



penny 



brother 



die 



genius 



pence. 

pennies (pieces of coin). 

brothers (of the same family). 

brethren (of the same association). 

dies (used to stamp coin). 

dice (used in games). 

geniuses (applied to human beings). 

genii (applied to spiritual beings). 

Words composed of a noun and the adjective 
fully have the regular plural : as, handful, handfuls ; 
spoonful, spoonfuls; mouthful, mouthfuls ; pailful, 
pailfuls. 

Words composed of a noun and an adjective 
have commonly the plural termination added to the 
noun : as, court-martial, courts-martial ; knight-errant, 
knights-errant. 

Words composed of two nouns have the regular 
plural: as, niglit-steed, night-steeds ; tide-waiter, tide- 
waiters. 



70 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 



Words composed of two nouns connected by a 
preposition have the plural termination added to the 
first word: as, father-in-law, fathers-in-law ; son-in- 
law, sons-in-law. 

A letter or figure is made plural by adding an 
apostrophe and s : as, seven as; four g's. 

Many words from foreign languages retain, for a 
longer or shorter time, their original plural ; as, 
phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii; crisis, crises, 
etc. (See dictionary.) 







GENDER. 




The distinction of 


sex 


is expressed : 


— 


I. By different words 


as, 




. Masculine. 


Feminine. 




Masculine. 


Feminine, 


bachelor, 


maid. 






husband, 


wife. 


beau, 


belle. 






king, 


queen. 


boy, 


girl. 






lad, 


lass. 


brother, 


sister. 






landlord, 


landlady. 


buck, 


doe. 






lord, 


lady. 


bull, 


cow. 






man, 


woman. 


drake, 


duck. 






master, 


mistress. 


earl, 


countess. 






nephew, 


niece. 


father, 


mother. 






papa, 


mamma. 


friar, 


nun. 






ram, 


ewe. 


gander, 


goose. 






son, 


daughter. 


gentleman, 


lady. 






uncle, 


aunt. 


hart, 


roe. 






wizard, 


witch. 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 



71 



2. By difference of termination : as, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Fe?ninine. 


abbot, 


abbess. 


hero, 


heroine. 


actor, 


actress. 


host, 


hostess. 


administrator, 


administratrix. 


hunter, 


huntress. 


ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


author, 


authoress. 


landgrave, 


landgravine. 


baron, 


baroness. 


lion, 


lioness. 


benefactor, 


benefactress. 


marquis, 


marchioness 


bridegroom, 


bride. 


margrave, 


margravine. 


count, 


countess. 


negro, 


negress. 


czar, 


czarina. 


patron, 


patroness. 


dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


peer, 


peeress. 


deacon, 


deaconess. 


priest, 


priestess. 


don, 


donna. 


prince, 


princess. 


duke, 


duchess. 


prophet, 


prophetess. 


emperor, 


empress. 


shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


enchanter, 


enchantress. 


songster, 


songstress. 


executor, 


executrix. 


sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


giant, 


giantess. 


sultan, 


sultana. 


governor, 


governess. 


testator, 


testatrix. 


heir, 


heiress. 


widower, 


widow. 



3. By different words prefixed : as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

man-servant, maid-servant, 

male-child, female-child. 

!N"ote. — This method of distinguishing the gender is becoming less and 
less frequent, and in several of the words here given, the feminine form is 
seldom used. 



72 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS, FOR REFERENCE. 



Present, 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


am or be, 


was, 


been. 


arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


bear (to bring forth) 


, bore or bare, 


born. 


bear (to uphold), 


bore, bare, 


borne. 


beat, 


beat, 


beaten or beat. 


begin, 


began, 


begun. 


bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


break, 


broke, brake, 


broken. 


chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


cleave (to split), 


clove, cleft, 


cloven, cleft. 


come, 


came, 


come. 


do, 


did, 


done. 


draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


drink, 


drank, 


drank, drunk. 


drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


eat, 


ate, eat, 


eaten or eat. 


fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 



Note. — Old forms in Italics. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



73 



Present. 


Past. 




Perfect Participle. 


get, 


got, 




gotten, got. 


give, 


gave, 




given. 


g°> 


went, 




gone. 


grow, 


grew, 




grown. 


hide, 


hid, 




hidden, hid. 


hold, 


held, 




held, holden. 


know, 


knew, 




known. 


lade (to load), 1 


laded, 




laden. 


lie (to recline), 


lay, 




lain, lien. 


ride, 


rode, 




ridden. 


ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


rise, 


rose, 




risen. 


run, 


ran, ?-un, 


run. 


see, 


saw, 




seen. 


shake, 


shook, 




shaken. 


sing, 


sang, sung, 


sung. 


sink, 


sank, sunk, 


sunk. 


slay, 


slew, 




slain. 


smite, 


smote, 




smitten, smit. 


speak, 


spoke, 


spake, 


spoken. 


spring, 


sprang, sprung, 


sprung. 


steal, 


stole, 




stolen. 


stride, 


strode, 




stridden. 


strive, 


strove, 




striven. 


swear, 


swore, 




sworn. 


swim, 


swam, 


swum, 


swum. 


take, 


took, 




taken. 


tear, 


tore, 




torn. 



1 Lade, to dip % is regular. 



74 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


tread, 


trod, 


trodden or trod. 


wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


write, 


wrote, 


written. 


weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 



IRREGULAR VERBS WHOSE PAST TENSE AND PERFECT 
PARTICIPLES ARE ALIKE. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle 


abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


beseech, 


besought, 


besought 


bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


dig, 


dug, 


dug. 


feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


find, 


found, 


found. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



75 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


flee, 


fled, 


fled 


fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


have, 


had, 


had. 


hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


hit, 


hit, 


hit 


hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt 


keep, 


kept, 


kept 


lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


lead, 


led, 


led. 


leave, 


left, 


left 


lend, 


lent, 


lent 


let, 


let, 


let. 


lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


make, 


made, 


made- 


mean, 


meant, 


meant 


meet, 


met, 


met 


pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


put, 


put, 


put. 


read, 


read, 2 


read. 2 


rend, 


rent, 


rent 


rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


say, 


said, 


said. 


seek, 


sought, 


sought 


sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


send, 


sent, 


sent 


set, 


set, 


set. 


shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 




2 Pronounced red. 





7 6 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


shrink, 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


slide, 


slid, 


slid. 


sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


slit, 


slit, 


slit, slitted. 


speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


split, 


split, 


split. 


spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


stick, 


stuck. 


stuck. 


sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


strike, 


struck, 


struck. 


string, 


strung, 


strung. 


sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


tell, 


told, 


told. 


think, 


thought, 


thought. 


thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


win, 


won, 


won. 


wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 



77 



The following verbs are sometimes regular, and 
sometimes irregular, in the formation of their princi- 
pal parts : — 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


bereave, 


bereft, bereaved, 


bereft, bereaved. 


blend, 


blended, 


blended, blent. 


build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


cleave (to adhere), 


cleaved, clave, 


cleaved. 


clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


crow, 


crowed, crew, 


crowed. 


dare (to venture), 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


deal, 


dealt, dealed, 


dealt, dealed. 


dream, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt. 


dwell, 


dwelt, dwelled, 


dwelt, dwelled. 


gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


grave, 


graved, 


graven, graved. 


hang, 


hung, hanged, 1 


hung, hanged. 


hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, hewed. 


kneel, 


knelt, kneeled, 


knelt, kneeled. 


knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


mow, 


mowed, 


mown, mowed. 


pen (to enclose), 


pent, penned, 


pent, penned. 


quit, 


quit, quitted, 


quit, quitted. 


rive, 


rived, 


riven, rived. 



1 Regular when it denotes the taking of life. 



7* 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


rot, 


rotted, 


rotten, rotted. 


saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, sawed. 


shape, 


shaped, 


shapen, shaped. 


shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, shaved. 


shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, sheared. 


show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


sow, 


sowed, 


sown, sowed. 


spell, 


spelt, spelled, 


spelt, spelled. 


spill, 


spilt, spilled, 


spilt, spilled. 


strew, 


strewed, 


strewn, strewed. 


strow, 


s trowed, 


strown, strowed. 


swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, swelled. 


thrive, 


thrived, throve, 


thriven, thrived. 


wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, waxed. 


whet, 


whet, whetted, 


whet, whetted. 


work, 


wrought, worked, 


wrought, worked, 



Note to Teachers. — All the irregular verbs (so called) are of Anglo- 
Saxon origin. Many verbs, formerly irregular, are now regular; as, work, 
■wrought, wrought, — now regular; reach, r aught, r aught, — now regular; 
bedeck, bedight, bedight, — now regular. 

There are also others partially modernized ; as, sow, sowed, sowed or sown. 

In others, there is a strong tendency to make the past tense and the per- 
fect participle alike, by retaining but one form ; as, sing, sung, sung ; drink, 
drank, drank ; hold, held, held ; get, got, got. 



MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 79 

EXERCISES ON THE MODES AND TENSES OF 
VERBS. 

EXERCISE I. 

The robin returns with the spring. 

State or write this sentence, putting the verb into all the tenses 
of the indicative mode, declarative form ; and then change the sen- 
tences to the interrogative form. 

EXERCISE II. 

The pupils are studious. 

Put the verb in this sentence into all the tenses of the potential 
mode, declarative form ; and then change the sentences to the inter- 
rogative form. 

EXERCISE III. 

In place of the nouns italicized, substitute an infinitive, using 
both forms, — the infinitive phrase, and the infinitive in ing. 

1. The sight of the sun is pleasant. 

2. The defence of our rights is lawful. 

3. Humility is becoming to the young. 

4. Relief oi the poor is in the power of wealth. 

5. The service of God should be the great object of life. 

6. The kind treatment of enemies makes them friends. 

7. His object was the acquisition of money. 

8. The indulgence of our appetites is often injurious. 

9. Death for one's country is sweet. 
10. A love for wisdom makes us wise. 



80 MODES AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

Substitute each of the forms in the example for the italicized 

verbs in these sentences, and make such other changes as the sense 

requires. 

EXAMPLE. 

Indicative. Charles expresses his opinion modestly. 

Potential. Charles must express his opinion modestly. 

If Charles express his opinion modestly, he will 



Subjunctive. , 

L be listened to. 

I?nperative. Charles, express your opinion modestly. 

Charles is requested to express his opinion mod- 



An infinitive. 

I estly. 

r Charles, expressing his opinion modestly, was 

I eagerly listened to. 



EXERCISE IV. 

(i) Pupils obey their teachers, and meet their approval. 

(2) We gain wisdom by experience, and become truly 
wise. 

(3) The poor man is frugal in his habits, and he will be 
respected. 

(4) The pupils make great efforts, and they will succeed. 

(5) The men are industrious, and they will thrive. 

Note. — This exercise may be extended at the discretion of the teacher, 
by requiring the sentences to be put into any or all of the tenses of the 
several modes. 

PROPER USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

That is preferable to who or which in a restrictive 
clause ; as, The boys that I saw reminded me of my 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 8 1 

younger days. (Here the assertion is not made of 
all boys, but is restricted to the boys that I saw.) 

That is also preferable to who or which, — 

ist, After the word same. 

2d, After an adjective in the superlative degree. 

3d, After the interrogative pronoun who. 

4th, When the antecedent consists of both persons 
and things. Who or which is preferable to that when 
used in explanation ; as, We see the emblem of our 
fate in floivers> which bloom and die. (Here which 
does not restrict flozvers to a certain class, but adds 
something that is common to all flowers.) 

EXERCISE. 

Supply the blanks with the proper relative pronouns. 

( 1 ) This is the same man we met yesterday. 

(2) The warrior is successful, is idolized by the 

thoughtless. 

(3) Washington was perhaps the most respected presi- 
dent has filled the executive chair. 

(4) Who, has any sense of justice, would act dif- 
ferently? 

(5)1 saw a boy and sled reminded me of old times. 

(6) John Howard, was a true philanthropist, died 

greatly lamented. 

(7) Wisdom is the best possession a man can have. 



§2 SENTENCES. 



SENTENCES. 



A sentence may be simple, compound, or complex. 

The essential parts of a sentence are the simple 
subject and the simple predicate. 

A simple sentence contains but one subject and 
one predicate; as, A man's happiness depends pri- 
marily upon his disposition. 

Both the subject and the predicate may be limited 
by phrases and words ; as, Every art may prove dan- 
gerous in the hands of bad men. 

The subject may be compound, and the predicate 
simple ; or, the predicate may be compound, and 
the subject simple; as, Virtue and vice are opposed 
to each other. Steam serves man, and also destroys 
him. 

A compound sentence contains two or more 
independent statements ; as, The sagacity of Newton 
led him to his great discovery, and he now stands at 
the J lead of philosophers. 

A complex sentence contains one independent 
statement, and one or more subordinate statements 
called clauses ; as, // was Ccesar who won the battle. 

Either or both of the members of a compound 
sentence may be complex ; as, Every boy that expects 
success in life must be industrious ; and every man 



EXPANSION. 83 

that would be respected, must live so as to deserve 
respect. 

A complex sentence may have compound clauses ; 
as, We all know that evil communications corrupt 
good manners, a7id that the companiojtship of the 
virtuous is elevating. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTION, 
ARRANGEMENT, AND EXPRESSION. 

EXPANSION OF WORDS TO PHRASES. 

EXAMPLE. 

Energetic men are commonly successful. 

Expanded : — 

Men of energy are, in most cases, successful. 



EXERCISE I. 

Expand the italicized words into phrases. 

(1) The husbandman's treasures are renewed yearly. 

(2) Cromwell acted sternly and decidedly on important 
matters. 

(3) Important acts were passed by the senate. 

(4) A sincere man is a very valuable friend. 

(5) Tranquil scenes soothe the wounded spirit. 

(6) Large animals are commonly strong. 



84 EXPANSION. 

(7) Valiant men taste of death but once. 

(8) Wealthy men should give liberally. 

(9) The sun was then supposed to revolve round the 
earth. 

(10) The man boldly discharged his duty. 

EXAMPLE. 

The just man acts according to the dictates of conscience. 

Expanded : — 

The man that is just acts as his conscience dictates. 



EXERCISE II. 

Expand the italicized words and phrases into clauses. 

(1) Quarrelsome persons are despised. 

(2) The manner of his escape is a profound mystery. 

(3) Some persons believe the planets to be inhabited. 

(4) Truly wise philosophers are fewer than very learned 
scholars. 

(5) His guilt or innocence is still uncertain. 

(6) With patience he might have succeeded. 

(7) The battle having been fought, the general began 
to estimate his loss. 

(8) No one doubts the roundness of the earth. 

(9) The barricade being forced, the crowd rushed out. 
(10) He believed his health to be improving. 



CONTRA CTION. 8 5 

CONTRACTION OF COMPLEX INTO SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

This may be done by changing a clause to a 
phrase. 

EXAMPLE. 

When father returned, the boys received presents. 

Contracted : — 

On father's return, the boys received presents. 



EXERCISE I. 

(i) One man, who had a good trade, lost his luck in 
fishing. 

(2) The gentleman will be pleased if his son improves. 

(3) When the gentleman left town, he probably re- 
turned to his family. 

(4) The man who is often changing his friendships, can 
never have a true friend. 

(5) While we cling to our friends, the unseen hand of 
Providence tears them from our embrace. 

(6) The sweet breeze, that makes the green leaves 
dance, shall cool thy fevered brow. 

(7) He leaned back in his carriage while he was carried 
along. 

(8) When the boy saw his father, he ran to embrace him. 

(9) When the teacher found his pupils idle, he re- 
proved them. 

(10) After the gentleman had settled his affairs, he left - 
the country. 



86 CONTRACTION. 

EXERCISE II. 

(i) As he walked towards the bridge, he met his 
friend. 

(2) When he had spoken two hours, the member re- 
sumed his seat. 

(3) The ground is never frozen in Palestine, as the cold 
is not severe. 

(4) Socrates declared that virtue is its own reward. 

(5) When darkness broke away, the town wore a strange 
aspect. 

(6) After he had suppressed the conspiracy, he led his 
troops into Italy. 

(7) There are many ills that we cannot avoid. 

(8) As the door was open, the boy entered the house. 

(9) After he met his friend, he returned with him to 
his house. 

(10) Since I saw you, I have heard from my father. 

CONTRACTION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES INTO COMPLEX. 

This may be done by using a subordinate conjunc- 
tion or a relative pronoun to connect two of its 
members. 

EXAMPLE. 

The sea spent its fury, and then it became calm. 

Contracted : — 

When the sea had spent its fury, it became calm. 



CONTRACTION. 87 

EXERCISE. 

(1) The premises were admitted, and the conclusion 
followed. 

(2) The officers were chosen, and then the meeting 
adjourned. 

(3) Nature is full of unknown things, and the oppor- 
tunities for discovery are still great. 

(4) The sun rose, and the gray mist evaporated. 

(5) My country has done me justice, and I have no 
reason to complain. 

(6) The stars went out, and the wind came roaring 
down the mountain. 

(7) It was summer, and the heat was intense. 

(8) The charms of spring were past, and the glow of 
summer succeeded. 

(9) The crime was great, and the punishment should be 
severe. 

(10) Nature had put a coat of many colors upon the 
woodlands, and they were gay and beautiful. 

(11) Expert men can execute, and judge of particulars, 
but the general counsels come best from the learned. 

(12) The boy wished to secure the good-will of his 
teacher, and he performed his duties faithfully. 

(13) Dryden knew more of man in his general nature, 
but Pope knew more of him in his local manners. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES UNITED TO FORM COMPOUND 
SENTENCES. 



EXAMPLE. 

Man is a rational being. 

Man is endowed with the highest capacity for happiness. 

Man often mistakes his best interests. 

Man often pursues trifles with all his energies. 

Man considers trifles as the chief object of desire. 

United and contracted : — 

Man is a rational being, endowed with the highest capa- 
city for happiness ; but he often mistakes his best interests, 
and pursues trifles with all his energies, considering them 
the chief object of desire. 



EXERCISE. 

Men of courage do not fear danger. 

They do not needlessly run into danger. 

They avoid danger except in the performance of 

duty. 
We acquire knowledge by reading. 
We acquire knowledge by study. 
We acquire knowledge by conversation. 
We acquire knowledge by observation. 
We prepare ourselves for usefulness and happiness. 
Knowledge gives us power. 
Power adds to our self-respect. 



(0 



(») 



INVERSION. 



8 9 



(3) 



(4) 



(5) 



Labor strengthens the body. 

Labor promotes health. 

Labor gives a relish to food. 

Labor helps us overcome obstacles. 

Labor is rewarded by success. 

Idleness weakens the body. 

Idleness destroys the appetite. 

Idleness brings on disease. 

Wealth may give us the respect of the ignorant. 

Wealth may give us the respect of the corrupt. 

Wealth will not recommend us to the wise. 

Wealth will not recommend us to the good. 

The soldiers fled in confusion. 

The soldiers were pursued by the enemy. 

The soldiers escaped with difficulty. 

The soldiers entered the city. 

The soldiers shut down the gates. 



INVERSION. 
EXAMPLE. 

New races of animals rise into existence with each suc- 
ceeding month. 

Inverted : — 

With each succeeding month, new races of animals rise 
into existence. 

New races of animals, with each succeeding month, rise 
into existence. 



90 INVERSION, 

EXERCISE I. 

Invert the following sentences in as many ways as possible, and 
punctuate the inverted sentences. 

( i ) Science is conquering the great obstacles of nature 
by its application to the arts of life. 

(2) While hope remains there can be no positive 
misery. 

(3) New races of animals rise into existence with each 
succeeding month. 

(4) This destruction raged from the gates of Madras to 
the gates of Tanjore for eighteen months without intermission. 

(5) I found the following fragment in looking over the 
papers of an acquaintance. 

(6) The end of all government is the happiness of the 
governed. 

(7) In the midst of perplexities it is wrong to be 
discouraged. 

(8) How beautiful to the eye of faith is the sunset 
hour ! 

(9) According to the popular notion, a genius learns 
without study, and knows without learning. 

(10) When the farmer came down to breakfast the next 
morning, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour 
in the night. 

Note to Teachers. — These sentences may be used for analysis, and 
the pupil will see that the arrangement only is changed, and not the con- 
struction. 



INVERSION, 91 

EXERCISE II. 

Invert as above, and punctuate. (See Rules.) 

(1) A straw will furnish the occasion when people are 
determined to quarrel. 

(2) The man of long experience, who seldom errs in 
judgment, is a suitable person to be consulted. 

(3) I shall not contradict you if you praise them for 
their excellence. 

(4) But whatever may be our fate, be assured that this 
declaration will stand. 

(5) Conscience remonstrates while we are doing wrong. 

(6) Conscience reproaches us after we have done 
wrong. 

(7) In the present exercise, emphasis is the subject to 
which the pupil's attention is called. 

(8) Wherever Hope went he diffused around him glad- 
ness and joy. 

(9) I knew very well that he could do it. 
(10) We acquire knowledge by patient study. 

EXERCISE III. 

Invert and punctuate as above. 

(1) In rural occupations there is nothing mean and 
debasing. 

(2) With such pomp as this is Merry Christmas now 
ushered in, though only a single star heralded the first 
Christmas. 



92 INVERSION. 

(3) Among the Indians it is reckoned uncivil, in trav- 
elling, for strangers to enter a village abruptly, without giving 
notice of their approach. 

(4) We ought not to think, while dangers are afar off, 
that we are secure, unless we try to guard against them. 

(5) I had long before repented of my roving course of 
life, but I could not free my mind from the love of travel. 

(6) Early in the morning, before the family was stirring, 
the old clock, that had stood for fifty years in the farmer's 
kitchen, without giving its owner any cause of complaint, 
suddenly stopped. 

(7) Between passion and lying there is little difference. 

(8) So far as I can judge, the book is well written. 

(9) I obtained under his instruction, a knowledge of his 
art. 

(10) The quiet vale of Chamouni lay behind us dotted 
with romantic hamlets. 

COMPOUND SUBJECT. 

Unite these sentences so as to assert that great praise is due to 
both. 

The boy's father deserves great praise. 
The boy's mother deserves great praise. 
United: — 

The boy's father and mother deserve great praise. 
Deny that great praise is due to both of them. 
The boy's father and mother do not both deserve great 
praise. 



INVERSION'. 93 

Assert that great praise Is due to one of them, without specify- 
ing which. 

Either the boy's father or mother deserves great praise. 

Deny that great praise is due to either of them. 

Neither the boy's father nor mother deserves great 
praise. 

State that great praise is due to one of them, and not to the 
other. 

The boy's mother, but not the father, deserves great 
praise. 

EXERCISE I. 

Write the following sentences in the several ways pointed out in 
the model, uniting the two sentences in each exercise. 

(i) John recites the lesson well. 
James recites the lesson well. 

(2) Charles has gone to the country. 
William has gone to the country. 

(3) Exercise promotes health. 
Temperance promotes health. 

(4) A gentleman was accommodated with board. 
A lady was accommodated with board. 

(5) An old man attempts to cross the river. 
A boy attempts to cross the river. 

(6) Charles has gone to school. 
Anna has gone to school. 



94 ANAL YSIS. 

ANALYSIS. 

In Analysis, it will be found convenient to have a 
general form (not to be too strictly adhered to), but 
sufficient to secure a well-arranged statement of the 
construction of the sentences analyzed. 

With this view, the following models, used, with 
slight modifications, in many of our best schools, 
are suggested. 

METHOD. 
A. 

Kind of sentence. 

B. 

Write sentence in natural order; separate en- 
larged subject from enlarged predicate; underline 
simple subject and simple predicate. 

c. 

Clauses : kind, and what they modify. 

D. 

Phrases : kind, and what they modify. 

E. 

Part of speech, and construction of words (parsing). 

MODELS. 
I. 

" A sunbeam played through a hole in the roof of a barn." 



ANALYSIS. 95 

A. 

Simple, declarative, containing one statement. 

B. 

A sunbeam I played through a hole in the roof of a barn. 

C. 

Not any. 

D. 

" through — hole," adv., mod. played. 

" in — roof," adj., mod. hole. 

" of — barn," adj., mod. roof. 

E. 

" sunbeam," noun, subject of played. 
" played," verb, predicate of sunbeam. 
"through," prep., connects played and hole. 
" hole," noun, object of through. 
"in," prep., connects hole and roof. 
"roof," noun, object of in. 
"of," prep., connects roof and barn. 
"barn," noun, object of of. 

II. 

" Your father will go to the exhibition to-morrow, but he 
will not take you with him." 

A. 

Compound declarative, containing two independent state- 
ments. 



g6 ANALYSIS. 

B. 

Your father I will go to the exhibition to-morrow, 
but 
he I will not take you with him. 

C. 

Not any. 

D. 

" to — exhibition," adv., mod. will go. 

"with him," adv., mod. will take. 

III. 

" The landscape that fills the traveller with rapture is 

regarded with indifference by him who sees it every day 

from his window." 

A. 

Complex, declarative, containing one independent state- 
ment and two clauses. 

B. 

The landscape that fills the traveller with rapture j is 
regarded with indifference by him who sees it every day from 

his window. 

C. 

" that I fills the traveller with rapture," adj., mod. landscape. 

"who I sees it every day from his window," adj., mod. him. 

D. 

" with rapture," adv., mod. fills. 

" with indifference," adv., mod. is regarded. 

u by him," adv., mod. is regarded. 

" from window," adv., mod. sees. 



ANALYSIS. 97 

ANALYSIS. 

(i) Kind of sentence. 

(2) Entire subject of sentence. 

(3) Entire predicate of sentence. 

(4) Simple subject and its modifiers. 

(5) Simple predicate and its modifiers. 

(6) Kind of clauses, and what they modify. 

(7) Entire subject of clause. 

(8) Entire predicate of clause. 

(9) Kind of phrases, and what they modify. 
(10) Connectives. 

MODELS. 
I. 

" A sunbeam played through a hole in the roof of the 
barn." 

(1) This is a simple declarative sentence, containing 
one statement. 

(2) The entire subject is a sunbeam. 

(3) The entire predicate is played through a hole in the 
roof of the barn. 

(4) The simple subject is sunbeam, modified by a. 

(5) The simple predicate is played, modified by the 
adverbial phrase. 

(6) There are no clauses. 

(7) — • 

(8) . 



98 ANALYSIS. 

(9) The phrases are, — 

through a hole, adv., mod. played, 
in the roof, adj., mod. hole, 
of the barn, adj., mod. roof. 
(10) Connectives are through, in, and of. 

II. 

" Your father will go to the exhibition to-morrow, but he 
will not take you with him." 

( 1 ) This is a compound declarative sentence, containing 
two statements. 

(2) The entire subject of first statement is your father. 

(3) The entire predicate of first statement is, will go to 
the exhibition to-morrow. 

(4) Simple subject is father, modified by your. 

(5) Simple predicate is will go, modified by the adverb- 
ial phrase, and the adverb to-morrow. 

(6) There are no clauses. 

(7) — • 

(8) . 

(9) The phrase is to the exhibition, adv., mod. will go. 
(10) The connective is to. 

( 1 ) The second statement is, he will not take you with 
him. 

(2) Entire subject is he. 

(3) Entire predicate is will not take you with him. 



ANALYSIS. 99 

(4) Simple subject is he. 

(5) Simple predicate is will take, made negative by not, 
and modified by the object you and the adverbial phrase. 

(6) There are no clauses. 

(7) — • 

(8) . 

(9) The phrase is with him, adv., mod. will take. 

(10) The connectives in entire sentence are, to, but, and 
with. 

III. 

" The landscape which fills the traveller with rapture is 
regarded with indifference by him who sees it every day, 
from his window. " 

(1) This is a complex declarative sentence; it contains 
one principal and two subordinate statements. 

(2) Entire subject of sentence is the landscape which 
fills the traveller with rapture. 

(3) Entire predicate is is regarded, and the rest of the 
sentence. 

(4) Simple subject is landscape, modified by the and 
the adjective clause. 

(5) Simple predicate is is regarded, modified by the 
two adverbial phrases. 

(6) The clauses are, which fills the traveller with rap- 
ture, adj., mod. landscape ; and, who sees it every day from 
his window, adj., mod. him. 



100 ANALYSIS. 

(7) Entire subject of first clause is which. 

Entire predicate of first clause is fills the traveller 
with rapture. 

(8) Entire subject of second clause is who. 

Entire predicate of second clause is sees it every 
day from his window. 

(9) The phrases are, — 

with rapture, adv., mod. fills, 
with indifference, adv., mod. is regarded, 
by him, adv., mod. is regarded, 
every day, adv., mod. sees, 
from his window, adv., mod. sees. 
(10) The connectives are, which, with, with, by, who, 
and from. 

When pupils have become familiar with the rules 
of syntax, and their application in constructions not 
beyond their capacity, it seems a waste of time to 
go through with the usual forms of parsing, which 
soon becomes a formal and monotonous exercise, 
awakening little thought. Questions like those in 
the following example will, it is believed, create 
an interest, and familiarize pupils with grammatical 
principles. 

These questions are given, not to be followed 
implicitly, but as suggestions to be used at the 
discretion of teachers. 



ANALYSIS. IOI 

EXAMPLE. 

"The tall oaks which grow in the forest wave their 
branches gracefully in the cold March winds." 

(i) Tell the use of the following words in the sentence 
above : tall, oaks, which, grow, wave, branches, gracefully., 
cold, March, winds. 

(2) Tell the use of the clause, which grow in the forest. 

(3) Tell the use of the phrases, in the forest, and in the 
cold March winds. 

(4) Write all the forms of the word tall, and tell when 
each should be used. 

(5) Write all the forms of oaks, and tell when each 
should be used. 

(6) What time is expressed by the word grow ? 

(7) What time would be expressed if it were grew ? 

(8) If the word have should be used before it, what 
form of the verb would it take ? 

(9) What other words besides have would require the 
same form? 

(10) Write all the forms of wave, and give an example 
of each form in a sentence. 

(11) How could the word wave be made to express 
future time? 

(12) What is the use of the words shall and will when 
they are prefixed to verbs? 

(13) What are auxiliaries ? 



APPENDIX. 



MODE. 



The potential mode might, perhaps, be more properly 
called another form of the indicative. 

Both modes are used to declare, and to ask a question. 

Both may be used either in an independent statement, 
or in a clause. 

Both may be used subjunctively, to express a condition. 

In fact, they are necessarily used for this purpose in all 
but the past tense. 

There seems, then, to be no way of defining either the 
indicative or the potential mode, so as to exclude the other, 
except by the form. 

I can do it, and / am able to do it, mean the same thing. 
He can go if he wishes, and he will go if he can. These 
expressions show that both modes may be used in declara- 
tive statements and in expressing conditions. 

On the other hand, the imperative has the form of the 
indicative, but is used for a different purpose. 

103 



104 APPENDIX, 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Grimm says, that " while / am means / am, bed means 
I shall be. The Anglo-Saxon beb (be) has not a present, but 
a future sense. In the older languages, it is only where the 
form am is not found, that be has the power of a present 
form." (See Fowler's Eng. Gram., p. 268.) 

It seems by this, that the present practice of confining 

the forms If I be, and If it rain, to their use only when 

reference is had to future time, is consistent with original 

usage. 

TENSE. 

Although we define tense as denoting distinctions of time, 
it is only in a very general sense that the time of an action 
is expressed by the verb. It is more commonly expressed 
by a phrase or an adverb. 

In fact, the present and the future of the indicative may 
be used in expressing present or future time ; as, The boys 
go back next Saturday week. I shall or will go now. I 
shall or will go to-morrow. 

The potential present and past tenses may be. used in 
expressing present or future time; as, He may go now, or 
He may go to-morrow. He could go now if he wished. He 
could go to-morrow if it were not for an engagement. 

The past form of the potential is used in expressing past 
time, only in clauses when it follows a past tense of the 
verb in the principal statement; as, I feared that he would 
overtake me. 



APPENDIX. 105 

SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 

May, shall, will, are regularly used in clauses, after the 
present and future tenses in the independent statement ; 
and might, could, would, should, after the past tenses ; as, 



I come 

I have come x 

I shall come 

I will come 

I came 

I had come 



that I may see for myself. 
> that I might see for myself. 



Verbs of asking, teaching, and a few others, have two 
direct objects, — one of the person, the other of the thing; 
as, / taught him grammar. 

That there are two direct objects, is shown by the fact 
that they admit of two regular passives ; as, He was taught 
gram?nar by me ; and, Grammar was taught him by me. I 
asked him this question. This question was asked him by 
me. He was asked this question by me. 

The construction is the same after certain verbs, when 
one of the objects is an infinitive, or verbal noun ; as, / 
heard him step. I saw him run. Two passives may be 
formed thus : His stepping was heai'd by me. He was heard 

1 The past form is sometimes used after the present perfect, since it represents a 
past action, complete at the present time; as, I may have told you, that you might 
be o?t your guard. 



106 APPENDIX. 

to step by me. He was seen to run by me. His running 
was seen by me. 

Need and dare, before another verb in a negative sentence, 
do not take the inflection s in the third person singular of 
the present indicative ; as, // need scarcely be said. All 
that need be said. — Newman. But if to is expressed with 
the second verb, the s is added ; as, It needs to be said. 
He dares to tell the truth. 

Needs is sometimes an adverb (meaning necessarily) ; as, 
He must needs go through Samaria. 



Methinks is formed by the impersonal verb think, mean- 
ing seem, and the dative me ; and is literally rendered, it 
seems to me. 



Had as lief, had better, had best, had like, had as good, 
and had rather, are sometimes criticised ; but they are 
idioms which have been in use from early times, and are 
abundantly supported by the best authorities. Would as 
lief and would rather are also used by good writers. 

" I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon." — Shakspeare. 
" I had rather be a doorkeeper," etc. — Ps. lxxxiv. 10. 
" I had much rather be myself the slave, 

And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him." — Cowper. 
" I had as lief not be, as live to be 

In awe of such a thing as I myself." — Shakspeare. 



APPENDIX. I07 

" Some things the state had better leave alone ; others it had 

better not." — M. Arnold. 

"But if I like the gay equipage so well as to go out of my 
road, I had better have gone afoot." — R. w. Emerson. 

" Is it true that Johnson had better have gone on producing 

more Irenes, instead of writing Lives of the Poets ? " 

M. Arnold. 



In Anglo-Saxon the simple infinitive was not preceded by 
the preposition to. 

It was only the dative case that was preceded by to. 

Some time in the latter part of the twelfth century, to 
came into use before the simple infinitive ; and the two 
infinitives — the dative, or gerundial, and the simple form — 
became confounded. 

But the gerund may now be distinguished from the sim- 
ple infinitive, by the fact that it generally expresses purpose 
or intention. It is equivalent to for with an infinitive in ing : 
as, A house to let = for letting; Ready to sail = for sailing; 
he is the man to do it = for doing it. 

Earle says, "That which we call the English infinitive 
verb, such as to live, to die, is quite a modern thing, and is 
characteristic of English as opposed to Saxon. It first ex- 
isted as a phrasal adverb, and was a method of attaching 
one verb to another in an adverbial manner. In process 
of time it detached itself, and assumed an independent 
position." 



108 APPENDIX. 

Bain says in his "Higher English Grammar " (p. 156), 
"The infinitive acts the part of a noun-phrase when pre- 
ceded, as it usually is, by the preposition to ; as, He is a 
fool to throw away such a chance ; and the manner or cir- 
cumstance or explanation of his being so is, for the throwing 
away of such a chance" This phrase, like others formed 
by a noun and preposition, may perform the office of a 
noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

This justifies what has been treated as an anomalous use 
of the infinitive (or verbal noun) in such sentences as, He 
was ready to go; He was wise enough to remain silent. 

The construction therefore is not anomalous, since a 
phrase consisting of a preposition and a noun may perform 
the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 



The English verb has no imperfect passive participle. 
To supply this want, the imperfect active is often used in a 
passive sense : as, The house is building ; The debt is owing ; 
The drums are beating. 

The evil of employing the same form in two meanings has 
given rise to the expressions, The house is being built. The 
drums are being beaten. 

These forms seem cumbrous and stiff, but they are now 
used by many good writers. (See Bain, p. 116.) 

Active forms with passive significations are found in infini- 
tives : as, A house to let ; good to eat ; books to sell ; he is 
to bla?ne. The infinitive is here a gerund. 



APPENDIX. IO9 

It is common to call as a relative pronoun in the expres- 
sions, such as, as many as. 

There seems, however, to be merely an ellipsis of the 
relative and its antecedent ; as, / gave him such articles as 
were in my possession. That is, I gave him such articles 
as \_those are which~\ were in my possession. As many as 
[those were who~\ i-eceived him, etc. 

When the ellipsis is supplied, we see that as is a con- 
junction. 

The same ellipsis exists after than in the following sen- 
tence : I paid him more money than was due. That is, I 
paid him more money than [the money that] was due. 



Such expressions as two first, three last, are often criti- 
cised, but are fully sanctioned by good usage ; as, 

" My two last letters." — Addison. 

" The two first lines." — Blair. 

" At the two last schools." — Johnson. 

" The three first of his longer poems." — Southey. 

Arnold says, " Persons write first three to prevent the 
seeming absurdity of implying that more than one thing can 
be first ; but it is equally absurd to talk about the first three 
when, as often happens, there is no second three." 

Besides, if the criticism is just, first and last, and indeed 
all superlatives can be used only with singular nouns ; and it 
is equally improper to speak of the first years of a lawyer's 
practice, the first essays of a writer, the two wisest men, or 



IIO APPENDIX. 

the two tallest men. For, if we insist that there can be but 
one first, it is clear there can be but one wisest man, one 
tallest man, etc. 

But we do not commonly speak of the wisest two men, 
the tallest two men. 

The general rule seems to be, that the word to which we 
wish to call special attention is placed first. 

Both forms are proper, and are used by the best writers. 



"The occurrence of the with a comparative — as, the 
more, the better — is now shown by grammarians not to afford 
an example of the definite article. The in such combina- 
tions, although spelt like the article, is in reality another 
word ; [meaning] by how muck, the more, by so much, the 

better. — — Bain's Higher English Grammar, p. 35. 



What with, in such sentences as, What with the cold 
weather and feeble health, I have been confined to the house, 
is an idiom, not to be analyzed, but used as an equivalent of 
the adverb partly. 

Bain says, "The rule (that the comparative must be used 
when two things are compared) is not strictly adhered to. 
Writers and speakers continually use the superlative in com- 
paring two things : as, the least of the two ; the best of the 
two. Like other dual forms, the comparative degree is 
superfluous, and perspicuity would be equally well served by 



APPENDIX. I 1 1 

using the same form of comparison for two, or for more 
than two." One having but two children speaks of his 
oldest and youngest child. 

Campbell, in "The Philosophy of Rhetoric," says, in 
reference to the expression, He is the taller ma?i of the two, 
" Only in such, the comparative has the definite article the 
prefixed to it, and it is construed precisely as the superla- 
tive ; nay, both degrees are in such cases used indiscrimi- 
nately. We say rightly, This is the weaker of the two, or 
the weakest of the two." 



There is sometimes a question whether to use an adjec- 
tive or an adverb after certain verbs. 

The principle seems to be, that when the limiting word 
expresses a quality' or state of the subject or the object, 
rather than the manner of the action, an adjective is proper. 

This construction takes place with the verbs, be, look, 
feel, taste, smell, seem, appear, etc. : as, The berry tastes 
sour. The flower smells sweet. Velvet feels smooth. The 
sentence sounds awkward and harsh. The man felt bad 
about it. The boy felt mean. The letter came safe. These 
persons ranked high among the nobility. He went to his 
work as gay as a lark. 

" The blow fell heavy on the family.'' — Macaulay. 

" The stream ran deep and strong" 

" The lads came back safe" 

" While he lived, his power stood firm. ' 



112 APPENDIX. 

"SHALL" AND "WILL." 

Shall originally meant obligation, — a sense still retained 
in its past tense should. 

Chaucer uses the expression, " The faith I shall to God " 
(meaning owe to God). 

Will, on the other hand, means intention. 

In the first person, except in making a promise, we use 
shall, admitting our determination to be a duty. 

In the second and third persons, we use will as a pre- 
sumption that the act is voluntary. 

Shall used in the second and third persons expresses the 
determination of the speaker, and is equivalent to a com- 
mand. It is the form of imposing legal obligations ; as, 
Thou shall noj steal. 

Is it proper to end a sentence with a preposition ? 

Dr. Campbell, in the " Philosophy of Rhetoric," says, " In 
English the preposition is often placed not only after the 
noun, but at a considerable distance from it, as in the fol- 
lowing example : The infirmary was, indeed, never so full 
as on this day, which I was at some loss to account for." 

The practice of throwing the preposition to the end of the 
sentence (especially when used with the restrictive relative 
that) is of Teutonic origin, and, as might be expected, an 
old English idiom. 

In the latter part of the seventeenth and the first part of 
the eighteenth century, it was regarded as inelegant. Since 



APPENDIX, 1 1 3 

that time, there has been a tendency to restore the English 
idiom, as less cumbersome and more spirited. Bain, in his 
" Higher English Grammar," gives the preference to such 
expressions as, that I was witness of, to of which I was a 
witness. A long list of quotations from Elizabethan writers, 
given by Bain, will show the usage at the time. That flesh 
is heir to, would hardly be improved by the expression to 
which flesh is heir. " Wretched vagabonds, eager only to 
find some obscure retreat to die in." — Prescott. u A force 

Of Cultivated opinion for him tO appeal tO." Matthew Arnold. 

This is much more vivid and idiomatic than to which he can 
appeal. 

This construction is especially adapted to colloquial dis- 
course, and an idiomatic style. 



UBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 231372 3 



